tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-43264893366822460222024-03-14T01:17:22.066-07:00kris-stoke-newingtongigihong07http://www.blogger.com/profile/11750522770505075201noreply@blogger.comBlogger237125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4326489336682246022.post-23340011353088109422009-03-24T00:53:00.000-07:002009-03-24T00:54:15.756-07:00musicMusic is an art form whose medium is sound organized in time. Common elements of music are pitch (which governs melody and harmony), rhythm (and its associated concepts tempo, meter, and articulation), dynamics, and the sonic qualities of timbre and texture. The word derives from Greek μουσική (mousike), "(art) of the Muses".[1]<br /><br />The creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary according to culture and social context. Music ranges from strictly organized compositions (and their recreation in performance), through improvisational music to aleatoric forms. Music can be divided into genres and subgenres, although the dividing lines and relationships between music genres are often subtle, sometimes open to individual interpretation, and occasionally controversial. Within "the arts", music may be classified as a performing art, a fine art, and auditory art.gigihong07http://www.blogger.com/profile/11750522770505075201noreply@blogger.com7tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4326489336682246022.post-44644828878000613002008-05-02T09:59:00.001-07:002008-05-02T09:59:11.300-07:00<img src="http://aggv.bc.ca/images_exhibitions/exhibitions_carr_gravelpit.jpg" alt="Broom Hill (Greater Victoria)" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b></b><br /> <b>Broom Hill</b> is a rural neighbourhood in <span href="/wiki/Sooke" title="Sooke">Sooke</span>, <span href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</span>. Its residential subdivisions surround a hill of <span href="/wiki/Gabbro" title="Gabbro">gabbro</span> which rises to an elevation of 274 metres (899 feet). Above the subdivisions, most of the terrain has a forest cover dominated by <span href="/wiki/Douglas-fir" title="Douglas-fir">Douglas-fir</span>.<br /> gigihong07http://www.blogger.com/profile/11750522770505075201noreply@blogger.com11tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4326489336682246022.post-39198575190912271972008-05-01T09:01:00.001-07:002008-05-01T09:01:24.931-07:00<img src="http://laytoneiflergroup.com/images/bankbombingsm_9s90.jpg" alt="Yala Province" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Geography</b><br /> <br /> <div class="boilerplate seealso"><i>For more details on this topic, see <span href="/wiki/South_Thailand_insurgency" title="South Thailand insurgency">South Thailand insurgency</span>.</i><img src="http://www.voanews.com/lao/images/AFP_Thailand_bomb_police_2101.jpg" alt="Yala Province" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <b> History</b><br /> Yala is one of the four provinces of Thailand where the majority of the population are <span href="/wiki/Muslim" title="Muslim">Muslim</span>, making up 68.9% of the population. Also 66.1% of the population are <span href="/wiki/Malay_people" title="Malay people">Malay</span>.<br /> <span name="Symbols" id="Symbols"></span><br /> <b> Symbols</b><br /> Yala is subdivided into 8 districts (<i><span href="/wiki/Amphoe" title="Amphoe">Amphoe</span></i>), which are further subdivided into 56 communes (<i><span href="/wiki/Tambon" title="Tambon">tambon</span></i>) and 341 villages (<i><span href="/wiki/Muban" title="Muban">muban</span></i>).<br /> <span name="External_links" id="External_links"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Amphoe_Mueang_Yala" title="Amphoe Mueang Yala">Mueang Yala</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Amphoe_Betong" title="Amphoe Betong">Betong</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Amphoe_Bannang_Sata" title="Amphoe Bannang Sata">Bannang Sata</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Amphoe_Than_To" title="Amphoe Than To">Than To</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Amphoe_Yaha" title="Amphoe Yaha">Yaha</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Amphoe_Raman" title="Amphoe Raman">Raman</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Amphoe_Kabang" title="Amphoe Kabang">Kabang</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Amphoe_Krong_Pinang" title="Amphoe Krong Pinang">Krong Pinang</span> gigihong07http://www.blogger.com/profile/11750522770505075201noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4326489336682246022.post-55196479437525237442008-04-30T10:08:00.000-07:002008-04-30T10:09:01.272-07:00 <b></b><br /> The invention of magnetic <span href="/wiki/Disk_storage" title="Disk storage">disk storage</span>, pioneered by <span href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</span> in the 1950s, was a critical component of the <span href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computer</span> revolution. This article surveys the major IBM computer disk drives introduced in the <span href="/wiki/1950s" title="1950s">1950s</span>, <span href="/wiki/1960s" title="1960s">1960s</span> and early <span href="/wiki/1970s" title="1970s">1970s</span>.<br /> The basic mechanical arrangement of hard disk drives hasn't changed since the IBM 1301. Disk drive performance and characteristics are measured the same today as they were in the 1950s. This survey concludes with a modern (<span href="/wiki/As_of_2004" title="As of 2004">2004</span>) <span href="/wiki/IBM_PC_compatible" title="IBM PC compatible">PC</span> <span href="/wiki/Hard_drive" title="Hard drive">hard drive</span> for comparison. Few products in history have enjoyed such a spectacular decline in cost and size with such a stellar improvement in capacity.<br /> <span name="IBM_350" id="IBM_350"></span><br /> <b> IBM 350</b><br /> The <b>IBM 353</b> used on the <span href="/wiki/IBM_7030" title="IBM 7030">IBM 7030</span>, was similar to the IBM 1301, but much faster. It had a capacity of 2,097,152 (2<br /> <span name="IBM_355" id="IBM_355"></span><br /> <img src="http://www.ibmservicecentre.com/pics/ibm_disk_storage.gif" alt="Early IBM disk storage" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <b> IBM 353</b><br /> The <b>IBM 355</b> was announced on <span href="/wiki/September_14" title="September 14">September 14</span>, <span href="/wiki/1956" title="1956">1956</span> as an addition to the popular <span href="/wiki/IBM_650" title="IBM 650">IBM 650</span>. It used the same mechanism as the IBM 350 and stored 6 million 7-bit decimal digits. Data was transferred to and from the <span href="/w/index.php?title=IBM_653&action=edit" class="new" title="IBM 653">IBM 653</span> magnetic <span href="/wiki/Core_memory" title="Core memory">core memory</span>, an IBM 650 option that stored just sixty 10-digit words, enough for a single sector of disk or tape data.<br /> <span name="IBM_1405" id="IBM_1405"></span><br /> <b> IBM 355</b><br /> The <b>IBM 1405 Disk Storage Unit</b> was announced by <span href="/wiki/1961" title="1961">1961</span> and was designed for use with the <span href="/wiki/IBM_1401" title="IBM 1401">IBM 1401</span> series medium scale business computers. The 1405 stored 10 million characters on a single module. Each module had 25 large disks, yielding 50 recording surfaces. The disks spun at 1200 RPM. The Model 1 had one module, the Model 2 had two modules, stacked vertically. Each recording surface had 200 tracks and 5 sectors per track. Data was read or recorded at 22,500 characters per second. A single arm moved in and out and up and down. Access time ranged from 100 to 800 milliseconds (Model 2).<br /> <span name="IBM_1301" id="IBM_1301"></span><br /> <b> IBM 1301</b><br /> The <b>IBM 1302 Disk Storage Unit</b> was introduced in September <span href="/wiki/1963" title="1963">1963</span>. Improved recording quadrupled its capacity over that of the 1301, to 117 million 6-bit characters per module. Average access time was 165 ms and data could be transferred at 180 K characters/second, more than double the speed of the 1301. A second arm accessed a separate group of 250 tracks. As with the 1301, there was a Model 2 with twice the capacity. The IBM 1302 Model 1 leased for $5,600 per month or could be purchased for $252,000. Prices for the Model 2 were $7,900 per month or $355,500 to purchase. The IBM 7631 controller cost an additional $1,185 per month or $56,000 to purchase. The 1302 was withdrawn in February <span href="/wiki/1965" title="1965">1965</span>.<br /> <span name="IBM_1311" id="IBM_1311"></span><br /> <b> IBM 1302</b><br /> The <b>IBM 1311 Disk Storage Drive</b> was announced on <span href="/wiki/October_11" title="October 11">October 11</span>, <span href="/wiki/1962" title="1962">1962</span> and was designed for use with several medium-scale business and scientific computers. The 1311 was about the size and shape of a top-loading <span href="/wiki/Washing_machine" title="Washing machine">washing machine</span> and stored 2 million characters on a removable IBM 1316 disk pack. Each disk pack was 4 inches high, weighed 10 pounds (4.5 kg) and contained six 14-inch diameter disks, yielding 10 recording surfaces (the outer surfaces were not used). The 10 individual R/W heads were mounted on a common actuator which was moved in and out hydraulically and mechanically detented at the desired track before reading or writing occurred. The disks spun at 1500 RPM. Each recording surface had 100 tracks with 20 sectors per track. Each sector stored 100 characters. Seven models of the 1311 were introduced during the <span href="/wiki/1960s" title="1960s">1960s</span>. They were withdrawn during the early <span href="/wiki/1970s" title="1970s">1970s</span>.<br /> Models of the 1311 disk drive<br /> The optional special features were<br /> Drive 1 (the master drive: models 1, 3, 4, and 5) was about a foot wider than the other drives (the slave drives: model 2), to contain extra power supplies and the control logic.<br /> The <b>IBM 1316 Disk Packs</b> were covered with a clear plastic shell and a bottom cover when not in use. A lifting handle in the top center of the cover was rotated to release the bottom cover. Then the top of the 1311 drive was opened and the plastic shell was lowered into the disk drive opening (assuming it was empty). The handle was turned again to lock the disks in place and release the plastic shell, which was then removed and the drive cover closed. The process was reversed to remove a disk pack.<br /> <span name="IBM_2311" id="IBM_2311"></span><br /> Must be drive 1 on an <span href="/wiki/IBM_1440" title="IBM 1440">IBM 1440</span>, <span href="/wiki/IBM_1460" title="IBM 1460">IBM 1460</span>, or <span href="/w/index.php?title=IBM_1240&action=edit" class="new" title="IBM 1240">IBM 1240</span> system. Contains the controller and can control up to 4 – Model 2 drives. Introduced October 11, 1962. Withdrawn February 8, 1971.<br /> Slave drive. Could have any special feature incorporated that the master drive (drive 1) had incorporated. Introduced October 11, 1962. Withdrawn January 6, 1975.<br /> Must be drive 1 on an <span href="/wiki/IBM_1620" title="IBM 1620">IBM 1620</span> or <span href="/wiki/IBM_1710" title="IBM 1710">IBM 1710</span> system. Contains the controller and can control up to 3 – Model 2 drives. Did not support any special features. Introduced October 11, 1962. Withdrawn May 12, 1971.<br /> Must be drive 1 on an <span href="/wiki/IBM_1401" title="IBM 1401">IBM 1401</span> system. Contains the controller and can control up to 4 – Model 2 drives. Introduced October 11, 1962. Withdrawn February 8, 1971.<br /> Must be drive 1 on an <span href="/wiki/IBM_1410" title="IBM 1410">IBM 1410</span>, <span href="/wiki/IBM_7010" title="IBM 7010">IBM 7010</span>, or <span href="/w/index.php?title=IBM_7740&action=edit" class="new" title="IBM 7740">IBM 7740</span> system. Contains the controller and can control up to 4 – Model 2 drives. Direct Seek comes standard on this model. Introduced <span href="/wiki/January_7" title="January 7">January 7</span>, <span href="/wiki/1963" title="1963">1963</span>. Withdrawn May 12, 1971.<br /> No information available, probably a master drive (drive 1). Introduced <span href="/wiki/March_5" title="March 5">March 5</span>, <span href="/wiki/1968" title="1968">1968</span>. Withdrawn February 2, 1971.<br /> No information available, probably a master drive (drive 1). Introduced March 5, 1968. Withdrawn February 2, 1971.<br /> Direct Seek: Without this option every seek returned to track zero first.<br /> Scan Disk: Automatic rapid search for identifier or condition.<br /> Seek Overlap: Allowed a seek to overlap ONE read or write and any number of other seeks.<br /> Track Record: Increased the capacity of the disk by writing ONE large record per track instead of using sectors. <b> IBM 1311</b><br /> The <b>IBM 2311 Direct Access Storage Facility</b> was introduced in <span href="/wiki/1964" title="1964">1964</span> for use throughout the <span href="/wiki/System/360" title="System/360">System/360</span> series. It was also available on the <span href="/wiki/IBM_1130" title="IBM 1130">IBM 1130</span>. The 2311 mechanism was largely identical to the 1311, but recording improvements allowed higher data density. The 2311 stored 7.25 million <span href="/wiki/Byte" title="Byte">bytes</span> on a single removable IBM 1316 disk pack (the same type used on the IBM 1311) consisting of six platters that rotated as a single unit. Each recording surface had 200 tracks plus 3 optional tracks which could be used as alternatives in case faulty tracks were discovered. Average seek time was 85 ms. Data transfer rate was 156 kB/s.<br /> The 2311 had 10 individual R/W heads mounted on a common actuator which was moved in and out hydraulically and mechanically detented at the desired track before reading or writing occurred. The 2311 was organized into cylinders, tracks, and records. (A cylinder referred to all surfaces the same track on each of the 5 platters.) Record 0 was reserved for timing.<br /> Because the 2311 was to be used with a wide variety of computers within the 360 product line, its electrical interconnection was standardized. This created an opportunity for other manufacturers to sell <b>plug compatible</b> disk drives for use with IBM computers and an entire industry was born.<br /> <span name="IBM_2314.2F2319" id="IBM_2314.2F2319"></span><br /> <b> IBM 2311</b><br /> The <b>IBM 2314 Disk Access Storage Facility</b> was introduced on <span href="/wiki/April_22" title="April 22">April 22</span>, <span href="/wiki/1965" title="1965">1965</span>, one year after the <span href="/wiki/System/360" title="System/360">System/360</span> introduction. It was used with the System/360 and the <span href="/wiki/System/370" title="System/370">System/370</span> lines. With Two Channel Switch feature it could interface with two 360/370 channels. The 2314 Disk access mechanism was similar to the 2311, but further recording improvements allowed higher data density. The 2314 stored 29,176,000 characters (200×20×7294 bytes per track) on a single removable IBM 2316 disk pack which was similar in design to the 1316 but was taller as a result of increasing the number of disks from six to eleven. The 2316 disk pack containing the eleven 14-inch diameter disks yielded 20 recording surfaces. The drive access consisted of 20 individual R/W heads mounted on a common actuator which was moved in and out hydraulically and mechanically detented at the desired track before reading or writing occurred. Each recording surface had 200 tracks. Access time was initially the same as the 2311, but later models were faster as a result of improvements made in the hydraulic actuator. Data transfer rate was doubled to 310 kB/s.<br /> The original Model 1 consisted of the 2314 control unit, a 2312 single drive module, and two 2313 four drive modules for a total of 9 disk drives. Only eight drives of the nine were available to the user at any one time. The ninth drive was there for a spare for the user and could also be worked on 'offline' by a Field Engineer while the other drives were in use by the customer. Each of the nine drives were mounted in individual drawers that were unlatched and pulled out to access the Disk Pack. Because of their appearance they picked up the nickname of 'Pizza Ovens'<br /> Other 2314 Models came later: 2314 Model A with combinations of one to nine drives. 2314 Model B with 2319 disk drives were available in three, six and nine drive models. A 2844 Control Unit could be added to the 2314 Control Unit which allowed two S/360 Channels simultaneous access to two separate disk drives in the Storage Facility.<br /> <span name="IBM_2310" id="IBM_2310"></span><br /> <b> IBM 2314/2319</b><br /> The <b>IBM 2310 Removable Cartridge Drive</b> was introduced with the <span href="/wiki/IBM_1130" title="IBM 1130">IBM 1130</span> in <span href="/wiki/1965" title="1965">1965</span>. It could store 512,000 words (1,024,000 bytes) on an IBM 2315 cartridge. A single 14 inch oxide-coated aluminum disk spun in a plastic shell with openings for the read/write arm and two heads.<br /> <span name="IBM_3330" id="IBM_3330"></span><br /> <b> IBM 2310</b><br /> The <b>IBM 3330 Direct Access Storage Facility</b>, code named <i>Merlin</i>, was introduced in June <span href="/wiki/1970" title="1970">1970</span> for use with the IBM <span href="/wiki/System/370" title="System/370">System/370</span> and the IBM <span href="/wiki/System_360" title="System 360">System 360</span>/195. Its removable disk packs held 100 megabytes (the <span href="/wiki/1973" title="1973">1973</span> Model 11 featured <b>IBM 3336 Disk Packs</b> that held 200 megabytes). Access time was 30 millisecond and data transferred at 806 kB/s. A major advance introduced with the 3330 was the use of <span href="/wiki/Error_correction" title="Error correction">error correction</span>, which made the drives more reliable and reduced costs because small imperfections in the disk surface could be tolerated. The circuitry could correct error bursts up to 11 bits long. The 3330 was withdrawn in 1983.<br /> <span name="IBM_3340" id="IBM_3340"></span><br /> <b> IBM 3330</b><br /> The <b>IBM 3340 Direct Access Storage Facility</b>, code named <i>Winchester</i>, was introduced in March <span href="/wiki/1973" title="1973">1973</span> for use with IBM <span href="/wiki/System/370" title="System/370">System/370</span>. Its removable disk packs were sealed and included the head and arm assembly. There was no cover to remove during the insertion process. Access time was 25 millisecond and data transferred at 885 kB/s. Three versions of the removable <b>IBM 3348 Data Module</b> were sold, one with 35 megabyte capacity, another with 70 megabytes, the third also had 70 megabytes, but with 500 kilobytes under separate fixed heads for faster access. The 3340 also used <span href="/wiki/Error_correction" title="Error correction">error correction</span>. It was withdrawn in 1984.<br /> The <i>Winchester</i> code name is rumored to be after the famous <span href="/wiki/.30-30_Winchester" title=".30-30 Winchester">30-30</span> <span href="/wiki/Winchester_rifle" title="Winchester rifle">Winchester rifle</span>. The rumor is that development engineers called the drive a 30-30 because it had two spindles holding 30 megabytes each and that the engineer in charge made the connection with the rifle. IBM notes the existence of this rumor but does not confirm it. The term <i>Winchester</i> or <i>Winnie</i> was used for hard disk drives in general for some time after the introduction of the 3340.<br /> <span name="IBM_3350" id="IBM_3350"></span><br /> <b> IBM 3340</b><br /> The <b>IBM 3350 Direct Access Storage Facility</b>, code named <i>Madrid</i>, was introduced in 1975 for use with IBM <span href="/wiki/System/370" title="System/370">System/370</span>. Its non-removable disk packs were sealed and included the head and arm assembly. The 3350 disk geometry was 555 cylinders, 30 heads, and 19069 bytes per track which gave the Head Disk Assembly (HDA) a storage capacity of 317,498,850 bytes. Disk units were identified as A2, A2F, B2, B2F, C2, and C2F. Each unit contained two HDAs and they were installed in "strings" of units. An A2 or A2F unit was required and attached to a "control unit" such as the IBM 3880. After the A2 could be up to 3 B2 units or 2 B2s and a C2. The C2 unit could also be connected to a control unit and with it in place then two I/O operations could be executed on the string at the same time. The "x2F" unit was a normal x2 unit, but its two HDAs also had a "Fixed Head" area over the first 5 cylinders. This Fixed Head area was intended to be allocated to the <span href="/wiki/HASP" title="HASP">HASP</span> or <span href="/wiki/JES2" title="JES2">JES2</span> checkpoint area and thus would greatly reduce head motion on the device. In the background of this 3350 photograph is an IBM 3066 console, used on the IBM 370/165 and 370/168 computers: <span href="http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/storage/storage_3350.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/storage/storage_3350.html" rel="nofollow">[1]</span><br /> <span name="IBM_3370" id="IBM_3370"></span><br /> <img src="http://www.technologynewsdaily.com/image/EMC-Connectrix.jpg" alt="Early IBM disk storage" align="left" style="padding:10px" /> <b> IBM 3350</b><br /> IBM introduced the IBM 3370 Direct Access Storage Device in January 1979 for its for IBM 4331, 4341, and System/38 midrange computers. It has 7 fixed 14" disks, and each unit has a capacity of 571Mb. It uses thin-film head technology; research on that technology started at T.J. Watson laboratory in the late 1960's. <span href="http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/storage/storage_3370.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/storage/storage_3370.html" rel="nofollow">[2]</span><br /> <span name="IBM_3380" id="IBM_3380"></span><br /> <b> IBM 3370</b><br /> The <b>IBM 3380 Direct Access Storage Device</b> was introduced in June 1980. It used new film head technology and had a capacity of 2.52 gigabytes with a data transfer rate of 3 megabytes per second. Average access time was 16 ms. Purchase price at time of introduction ranged from $81,000 to $142,200. Due to problems encountered, the first units did not ship until October, 1981.<span href="http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/storage/storage_3380.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/storage/storage_3380.html" rel="nofollow">[3]</span><br /> <span name="IBM_3390" id="IBM_3390"></span><br /> <b> IBM 3380</b><br /> [ text still missing ]<br /> <span name="The_floppy_disk" id="The_floppy_disk"></span><br /> <b> IBM 3390</b><br /> Another important IBM innovation was little noticed when it was introduced with the <span href="/wiki/System/370" title="System/370">System/370</span> in <span href="/wiki/1971" title="1971">1971</span>. IBM needed a way to load new <span href="/wiki/Microcode" title="Microcode">microcode</span> into the IBM System/370 Model 158 and developed the 33FD <span href="/wiki/Floppy_disk" title="Floppy disk">floppy disk</span> for this purpose.<br /> IBM's "first" floppies were 8 inches in diameter and held 80 Kilobytes of data. They were massively used starting in <span href="/wiki/1972" title="1972">1972</span> as data entry media ideally suited to replace 80-column punched cards, and card readers were in turn replaced by diskette readers. By <span href="/wiki/1978" title="1978">1978</span> most of IBM's and other manufacturers' punched-card, or "<span href="/wiki/Unit_record_equipment" title="Unit record equipment">unit record equipment</span>" such as punch machines, punched card verifiers, sorters, collating machines, card readers, etc., had been discarded, replaced by floppy diskette units, and in the process, saving each year millions of tons of cardboard paper worldwide. Floppy diskettes 5 1/4" and 3½" in diameter, having higher data densities and larger capacities, became important storage devices for the <span href="/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">personal computer</span> developed the late <span href="/wiki/1970s" title="1970s">1970s</span>.<br /> <span name="Disk_storage_in_2004" id="Disk_storage_in_2004"></span><br /> <b> Disk storage in 2004</b><br /> <span name="References" id="References"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/History_of_hard_disks" title="History of hard disks">History of hard disks</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#Electrical.2Felectronic.2Fmagnetic.2Foptical_storage_units" title="List of IBM products">List of IBM products#Electrical/electronic/magnetic/optical storage units</span> gigihong07http://www.blogger.com/profile/11750522770505075201noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4326489336682246022.post-41606101659511445312008-04-29T09:16:00.001-07:002008-04-29T09:16:24.828-07:00<img src="http://www.val.ics.tut.ac.jp/project/casa05.png" alt="Crowd simulation" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <b></b><br /> <b>Crowd simulation</b> is the process of simulating the movement of a large number of objects or characters, now often appearing in <span href="/wiki/3D_computer_graphics" title="3D computer graphics">3D computer graphics</span> for <span href="/wiki/Film" title="Film">film</span>.<br /> The need for crowd simulation arises when a scene calls for more characters than can be practically animated using conventional systems, such as skeletons/bones.<br /> Animators typically create a library of motions, either for the entire character or for individual body parts. To simplify processing, these animations are sometimes <i>baked</i> as <span href="/wiki/Morph" title="Morph">morphs</span>. Alternatively, the motions can be generated <i>procedurally</i> - i.e. choreographed automatically by software.<br /> The actual movement and interactions of the crowd is typically done in one of two ways:<br /> The most notable examples of AI simulation can be seen in <span href="/wiki/New_Line_Cinema" title="New Line Cinema">New Line Cinema</span>'s <i><span href="/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings" title="The Lord of the Rings">The Lord of the Rings</span></i> films, where AI armies of many thousands battle each other. The crowd simulation was done using <span href="/wiki/Weta_Digital" title="Weta Digital">Weta Digital</span>'s <span href="/wiki/Massive_%28software%29" title="Massive (software)">Massive software</span>.<br /> <b>Crowd simulation</b> can also refer to simulations based on <span href="/wiki/Group_dynamics" title="Group dynamics">group dynamics</span> and <span href="/wiki/Crowd_psychology" title="Crowd psychology">crowd psychology</span>, often in public safety planning. In this case, the focus is just the behavior of the crowd, and not the visual realism of the simulation.<br /> <span name="See_also" id="See_also"></span><br /> <i>Particle Motion</i>: The characters are attached to point <span href="/wiki/Particle_system" title="Particle system">particles</span>, which are then animated by simulating <span href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">wind</span>, <span href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</span>, attractions, and collisions. The particle method is usually inexpensive to implement, and can be done in most 3D software packages. However, the method is not very realistic because it is difficult to direct individual entities when necessary, and because motion is generally limited to a flat surface.<br /> <i>Crowd AI</i>: The entities - also called <span href="/wiki/Software_agent" title="Software agent">agents</span> - are given <span href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</span>, which guides the entities based on one or more functions, such as sight, hearing, basic emotion, energy level, aggressiveness level, etc.. The entities are given goals and then interact with each other as members of a real crowd would. They are often programmed to respond to changes in environment, enabling them to climb hills, jump over holes, scale ladders, etc. This system is much more realistic than particle motion, but is very expensive to program and implement. gigihong07http://www.blogger.com/profile/11750522770505075201noreply@blogger.com98tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4326489336682246022.post-43482798753285107472008-04-27T08:51:00.001-07:002008-04-27T08:51:48.355-07:00 <b></b><br /> <b>Gwen Renée Stefani</b> (born <span href="/wiki/October_3" title="October 3">October 3</span>, <span href="/wiki/1969" title="1969">1969</span>) (<span href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA pronunciation</span>: <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">[gwɛn stɛ'fɑn.ni]</span> In 2003, she debuted her clothing line <span href="/wiki/L.A.M.B." title="L.A.M.B.">L.A.M.B.</span> and expanded her collection with the 2005 <span href="/wiki/Harajuku_Lovers" title="Harajuku Lovers">Harajuku Lovers</span> line. Drawing inspiration from <span href="/wiki/Japanese_culture" title="Japanese culture">Japanese culture</span> and <span href="/wiki/Japanese_fashion" title="Japanese fashion">fashion</span>, Stefani performs and makes public appearances with four back-up dancers known as the <span href="/wiki/Harajuku_Girls" title="Harajuku Girls">Harajuku Girls</span>. She married <span href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">British</span> <span href="/wiki/Alternative_rock" title="Alternative rock">indie</span> musician <span href="/wiki/Gavin_Rossdale" title="Gavin Rossdale">Gavin Rossdale</span> in 2002, and the two have a son, Kingston, who was born in 2006.<br /> <span name="Early_life" id="Early_life"></span><br /> <b> Early life</b><br /> <span name="1986_.E2.80.93_present:_No_Doubt"></span><br /> <b> Music career</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/No_Doubt" title="No Doubt">No Doubt</span></i><img src="http://blog.fotolia.com/us/images/gwenstefani_camera-thumb.jpg" alt="Gwen Stefani" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b> 1986 – present: No Doubt</b><br /> <span name="2004_.E2.80.93_2006:_Love._Angel._Music._Baby."></span><br /> <b> 2004 – present: Solo career</b><br /> Stefani's debut solo album <i><span href="/wiki/Love._Angel._Music._Baby." title="Love. Angel. Music. Baby.">Love. Angel. Music. Baby.</span></i> was released in November 2004. The album features a large number of collaborations with producers and other artists, including Kanal, <span href="/wiki/Linda_Perry" title="Linda Perry">Linda Perry</span>, <span href="/wiki/OutKast" title="OutKast">OutKast</span>'s <span href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_3000" title="André 3000">André 3000</span>, and <span href="/wiki/The_Neptunes" title="The Neptunes">The Neptunes</span>. Stefani created the album to modernize the music to which she listened when in high school, and <i>L.A.M.B.</i> takes influence from a variety of music styles of the 1980s and early 1990s such as New Wave, <span href="/wiki/New_jack_swing" title="New jack swing">new jack swing</span>, and <span href="/wiki/Electro_%28music%29" title="Electro (music)">electro</span>.<br /> <span name="2006_.E2.80.93_present:_The_Sweet_Escape"></span><br /> <i>Problems playing the files? See <span href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help" title="Wikipedia:Media help">media help</span>.</i> <b> 2004 – 2006: Love. Angel. Music. Baby.</b><br /> Stefani's second solo album <i><span href="/wiki/The_Sweet_Escape" title="The Sweet Escape">The Sweet Escape</span></i> was released in December 2006. Stefani recollaborated with Kanal, Perry, and the Neptunes along with <span href="/wiki/Akon" title="Akon">Akon</span> and <span href="/wiki/Tim_Rice-Oxley" title="Tim Rice-Oxley">Tim Rice-Oxley</span>. The album focuses more heavily on <span href="/wiki/Dance_music" title="Dance music">dance music</span> for <span href="/wiki/Nightclub" title="Nightclub">clubs</span> than its predecessor. After "<span href="/wiki/4_in_the_Morning" title="4 in the Morning">4 in the Morning</span>" failed to match the success of Stefani's previous singles, "<span href="/wiki/Now_That_You_Got_It" title="Now That You Got It">Now That You Got It</span>" was released as the album's fourth single.<br /> <span name="Non-musical_projects" id="Non-musical_projects"></span><br /> <i>Problems playing the files? See <span href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help" title="Wikipedia:Media help">media help</span>.</i> <b> 2006 – present: The Sweet Escape</b><br /> Stefani made most of the clothing that she wore on stage with No Doubt, resulting in increasingly eclectic combinations. Stylist Andrea Lieberman introduced her to <span href="/wiki/Haute_couture" title="Haute couture">haute couture</span> clothing, which lead to Stefani launching a fashion line named <span href="/wiki/L.A.M.B." title="L.A.M.B.">L.A.M.B.</span> in 2004.<br /> <span name="Personal_life" id="Personal_life"></span><br /> <b> Non-musical projects</b><br /> Stefani had a crush on bandmate Tony Kanal when he joined No Doubt, but Kanal initially rejected her because her older brother was in the band and Kanal felt it was an <span href="/wiki/Unspoken_rule" title="Unspoken rule">unspoken rule</span> that no one of the band date her. The two eventually began dating and were "inseparable" by the early 1990s.<br /> Stefani was supossed to be on <span href="/wiki/Bone_Thugs-n-Harmony" title="Bone Thugs-n-Harmony">Bone Thugs-n-Harmony</span>'s Album <span href="/wiki/Strength_%26_Loyalty" title="Strength & Loyalty">Strength & Loyalty</span>, the Track's name was "You&Me", but never made it to the album.<br /> <span name="Public_image" id="Public_image"></span><br /> <b> Personal life</b><br /> Stefani is often identified by her unique appearance. She began wearing a <span href="/wiki/Bindi_%28decoration%29" title="Bindi (decoration)">bindi</span> in the mid 1990s after attending several family gatherings for Kanal, who is of <span href="/wiki/India" title="India">Indian</span> heritage.<br /> <span name="Harajuku_Girls" id="Harajuku_Girls"></span><br /> <b> Harajuku Girls</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Gwen_Stefani_discography" title="Gwen Stefani discography">Gwen Stefani discography</span></i> <b> Studio albums</b><br /> <span name="References" id="References"></span><br /> 2004: "<span href="/wiki/What_You_Waiting_For%3F" title="What You Waiting For?">What You Waiting For?</span>"<br /> 2004: "<span href="/wiki/Rich_Girl_%28Gwen_Stefani_song%29" title="Rich Girl (Gwen Stefani song)">Rich Girl</span>" featuring <span href="/wiki/Eve_%28rapper%29" title="Eve (rapper)">Eve</span><br /> 2005: "<span href="/wiki/Hollaback_Girl" title="Hollaback Girl">Hollaback Girl</span>"<br /> 2005: "<span href="/wiki/Cool_%28song%29" title="Cool (song)">Cool</span>"<br /> 2005: "<span href="/wiki/Luxurious" title="Luxurious">Luxurious</span>" featuring <span href="/wiki/Slim_Thug" title="Slim Thug">Slim Thug</span><br /> 2006: "<span href="/wiki/Crash_%28Gwen_Stefani_song%29" title="Crash (Gwen Stefani song)">Crash</span>"<br /> 2006: "<span href="/wiki/Wind_It_Up_%28Gwen_Stefani_song%29" title="Wind It Up (Gwen Stefani song)">Wind It Up</span>"<br /> 2007: "<span href="/wiki/The_Sweet_Escape_%28song%29" title="The Sweet Escape (song)">The Sweet Escape</span>" featuring <span href="/wiki/Akon" title="Akon">Akon</span><br /> 2007: "<span href="/wiki/4_in_the_Morning" title="4 in the Morning">4 in the Morning</span>"<br /> 2007: "<span href="/wiki/Now_That_You_Got_It" title="Now That You Got It">Now That You Got It</span>" featuring <span href="/wiki/Damian_Marley" title="Damian Marley">Damian Marley</span><br /> 2007: "<span href="/wiki/Early_Winter" title="Early Winter">Early Winter</span>" gigihong07http://www.blogger.com/profile/11750522770505075201noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4326489336682246022.post-60318647401910859612008-04-26T10:34:00.001-07:002008-04-26T10:34:03.109-07:00 <b></b><br /> The <b>3rd century BC</b> started the first day of <span href="/wiki/300_BC" title="300 BC">300 BC</span> and ended the last day of <span href="/wiki/201_BC" title="201 BC">201 BC</span>. It is considered part of the Classical <span href="/wiki/Era" title="Era">era</span>, <span href="/wiki/Epoch" title="Epoch">epoch</span>, or <span href="/wiki/Historical_period" title="Historical period">historical period</span>.<br /> The first few decades of this century were characterized by a balance of power between the <span href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</span> <span href="/wiki/Hellenistic" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</span> kingdoms in the east, and the great mercantile power of <span href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</span> in the west. This balance was shattered when conflict arose between <span href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</span> and the <span href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</span>. In the following decades, the <span href="/wiki/Carthaginian_Empire" title="Carthaginian Empire">Carthaginian Empire</span> was first humbled and then destroyed by the Romans in the first and second <span href="/wiki/Punic" title="Punic">Punic</span> wars. Following the <span href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</span>, Rome became the most important power in the western <span href="/wiki/Mediterranean" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</span>.<br /> In the 3rd century BC the <span href="/wiki/Xiong_Nu" title="Xiong Nu">Xiong Nu</span> were at the height of their power in <span href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</span>. The <span href="/wiki/Warring_States" title="Warring States">Warring States</span> period in China drew to a close, with <span href="/wiki/Qin_Shihuang" title="Qin Shihuang">Qin Shihuang</span> conquering other nation-states and establishing the <span href="/wiki/Qin" title="Qin">Qin</span> dynasty, the first empire of China. The <span href="/wiki/Proto-Three_Kingdoms_Period" title="Proto-Three Kingdoms Period">Protohistoric Period</span> began in the <span href="/wiki/Korean_peninsula" title="Korean peninsula">Korean peninsula</span>.<br /> <span name="Events" id="Events"></span><br /> <b> Events</b><br /> <span name="280s_BC"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/299_BC" title="299 BC">299 BC</span> The <span href="/wiki/Samnites" title="Samnites">Samnites</span>, seizing their chance when Rome is engaged on the <span href="/wiki/Lombard" title="Lombard">Lombard</span> plain, start the <span href="/wiki/Third_Samnite_War" title="Third Samnite War">third Samnite War</span> with a collection of mercenaries from <span href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</span> and <span href="/wiki/Sabine" title="Sabine">Sabine</span> and <span href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscan</span> allies to help them.<br /> <span href="/wiki/298_BC" title="298 BC">298 BC</span> The <span href="/wiki/Samnites" title="Samnites">Samnites</span> defeat the <span href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Romans</span> under <span href="/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Scipio_Barbatus" title="Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus">Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus</span> in the <span href="/wiki/Battle_of_Camerinum" title="Battle of Camerinum">Battle of Camerinum</span>, first battle of the <span href="/wiki/Third_Samnite_War" title="Third Samnite War">Third Samnite War</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/293_BC" title="293 BC">293 BC</span> The Chinese <span href="/wiki/Qin_%28state%29" title="Qin (state)">State of Qin</span> reduced the threat of the <span href="/wiki/Wei_%28state%29" title="Wei (state)">State of Wei</span> and the <span href="/wiki/Han_%28state%29" title="Han (state)">State of Han</span> with the Qin victory in the <span href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yique" title="Battle of Yique">Battle of Yique</span>.<br /> Roman armies penetrate into the heart of the Samnite territory and then capture the Samnite cities of Taurasia, Bovianum Vetus and <span href="/wiki/Aufidena" title="Aufidena">Aufidena</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Agathocles" title="Agathocles">Agathocles</span>, king of <span href="/wiki/Syracuse%2C_Sicily" title="Syracuse, Sicily">Syracuse</span>, assists the Italian Greeks against the <span href="/wiki/Bruttians" title="Bruttians">Bruttians</span> and supported the Greeks against the Romans.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy</span> gives his stepdaughter Theoxena in marriage to Agathocles, the tyrant of Syracuse (in south-eastern <span href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</span>).<br /> Ptolemy finally brings the rebellious region of Cyrene under his control. He places the region under the rule of his stepson Magas.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Bindusara" title="Bindusara">Bindusara</span> succeeds his father <span href="/wiki/Chandragupta_Maurya" title="Chandragupta Maurya">Chandragupta Maurya</span> as emperor of the <span href="/wiki/Mauryan_dynasty" title="Mauryan dynasty">Mauryan Empire</span>.<br /> Theater, <span href="/wiki/Epidauros" title="Epidauros">Epidauros</span>, is built with later additions. <b> 290s BC</b><br /> <span name="270s_BC"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/281_BC" title="281 BC">281 BC</span> <span href="/wiki/Antiochus_I_Soter" title="Antiochus I Soter">Antiochus I Soter</span>, on the assassination of his father <span href="/wiki/Seleucus" title="Seleucus">Seleucus</span> becomes emperor of the <span href="/wiki/Seleucid_empire" title="Seleucid empire">Seleucid empire</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/280_BC" title="280 BC">280 BC</span> King <span href="/wiki/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus" title="Pyrrhus of Epirus">Pyrrhus of Epirus</span> invades Italy in an attempt to subjugate the <span href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</span> and bring <span href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</span> under a new empire ruled by himself.<br /> <span href="/wiki/280_BC" title="280 BC">280 BC</span> Construction of the <span href="/wiki/Colossus_of_Rhodes" title="Colossus of Rhodes">Colossus of Rhodes</span> is completed <b> 280s BC</b><br /> <span name="260s_BC"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/279_BC" title="279 BC">279 BC</span> <span href="/wiki/Singidunum" title="Singidunum">Singidunum</span> and <span href="/wiki/Taurunum" title="Taurunum">Taurunum</span>, today's <span href="/wiki/Belgrade" title="Belgrade">Belgrade</span> and <span href="/wiki/Zemun" title="Zemun">Zemun</span>, founded by <span href="/wiki/Scordisci" title="Scordisci">Scordisci</span> Celts.<br /> <span href="/wiki/275_BC" title="275 BC">275 BC</span>: end of history of <span href="/wiki/Babylon#Hellenic_period" title="Babylon">Babylon</span>.<br /> After failing to decisively defeat the Romans, <span href="/wiki/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus" title="Pyrrhus of Epirus">Pyrrhus of Epirus</span> withdraws from Italy.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Gallic" title="Gallic">Gallic</span> migration to <span href="/wiki/Macedon" title="Macedon">Macedon</span>, <span href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</span> and <span href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatia</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/273_BC" title="273 BC">273 BC</span>–<span href="/wiki/252_BC" title="252 BC">252 BC</span> <span href="/wiki/Ashoka_the_Great" title="Ashoka the Great">Ashoka the Great</span> ruled the <span href="/wiki/Mauryan_Empire" title="Mauryan Empire">Mauryan Empire</span>. <b> 270s BC</b><br /> <span name="240s_BC"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/264_BC" title="264 BC">264 BC</span> <span href="/wiki/First_Punic_War" title="First Punic War">First Punic War</span> breaks out between the Carthaginian Empire and the <span href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/261_BC" title="261 BC">261 BC</span> <span href="/wiki/Antiochus_II_Theos" title="Antiochus II Theos">Antiochus II Theos</span>, 2nd son, at the death of his father becomes emperor of the <span href="/wiki/Seleucid_empire" title="Seleucid empire">Seleucid empire</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/260_BC" title="260 BC">260 BC</span> <span href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changping" title="Battle of Changping">Battle of Changping</span> between the <span href="/wiki/Qin_%28state%29" title="Qin (state)">State of Qin</span> and the <span href="/wiki/Zhao_%28state%29" title="Zhao (state)">State of Zhao</span> in China; a decisive Qin victory. <b> 240s BC</b><br /> <span name="220s_BC"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/230_BC" title="230 BC">230 BC</span> The Chinese <span href="/wiki/State_of_Qin" title="State of Qin">Qin State</span> conquers <span href="/wiki/State_of_Han" title="State of Han">Han</span>. <b> 230s BC</b><br /> <span name="210s_BC"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/225_BC" title="225 BC">225 BC</span> The Chinese <span href="/wiki/State_of_Qin" title="State of Qin">Qin State</span> conquers <span href="/wiki/State_of_Wei" title="State of Wei">Wei</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/223_BC" title="223 BC">223 BC</span> The Chinese <span href="/wiki/State_of_Qin" title="State of Qin">Qin State</span> conquers <span href="/wiki/State_of_Chu" title="State of Chu">Chu</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/222_BC" title="222 BC">222 BC</span> The Chinese <span href="/wiki/State_of_Qin" title="State of Qin">Qin State</span> conquers <span href="/wiki/State_of_Yan" title="State of Yan">Yan</span> and <span href="/wiki/State_of_Zhao" title="State of Zhao">Zhao</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/221_BC" title="221 BC">221 BC</span> With the conquest of the <span href="/wiki/Qi_%28state%29" title="Qi (state)">State of Qi</span>, <span href="/wiki/Qin_Shihuang" title="Qin Shihuang">Qin Shihuang</span> unifies the whole of China into one empire that also included northern Vietnam, forming the <span href="/wiki/Qin_Dynasty" title="Qin Dynasty">Qin Dynasty</span>. <b> 220s BC</b><br /> <span name="200s_BC"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/218_BC" title="218 BC">218 BC</span> <span href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</span> begins. <span href="/wiki/Hannibal" title="Hannibal">Hannibal</span> makes his famous <span href="/wiki/Alpine" title="Alpine">Alpine</span> crossing to invade <span href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</span>, the Roman heartland.<br /> <span href="/wiki/214_BC" title="214 BC">214 BC</span> <span href="/wiki/Qin_Shi_Huang" title="Qin Shi Huang">Qin Shi Huang</span> of the Chinese <span href="/wiki/Qin_Dynasty" title="Qin Dynasty">Qin Dynasty</span> ordered construction of the <span href="/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China" title="Great Wall of China">Great Wall of China</span>. <b> 210s BC</b><br /> <span name="Significant_persons" id="Significant_persons"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/206_BC" title="206 BC">206 BC</span>-<span href="/wiki/202_BC" title="202 BC">202 BC</span> Civil war of the <span href="/wiki/Chu-Han_contention" title="Chu-Han contention">Chu-Han contention</span> in China after the fall of the Qin Dynasty.<br /> <span href="/wiki/202_BC" title="202 BC">202 BC</span> Romans defeat Carthaginians, ending the <span href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</span>. Carthage's territories are reduced to the city itself, and crippling reparations are demanded by Rome.<br /> <span href="/wiki/India" title="India">Indian</span> traders regularly visited <span href="/wiki/Arabia" title="Arabia">Arabia</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Scythia" title="Scythia">Scythians</span> occupy <span href="/wiki/Sogdiana" title="Sogdiana">Sogdiana</span>, in modern-day <span href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Han_Dynasty" title="Han Dynasty">Han Dynasty</span> of China was founded (<span href="/wiki/202_BC" title="202 BC">202 BC</span>–<span href="/wiki/220" title="220">220 AD</span>).<br /> The <span href="/wiki/Pharos_of_Alexandria" title="Pharos of Alexandria">Pharos of Alexandria</span> is built.<br /> Appearance of the <span href="/wiki/Hopewell_culture" title="Hopewell culture">Hopewell culture</span> in <span href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</span>, <span href="/wiki/USA" title="USA">USA</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Teotihuac%C3%A1n" title="Teotihuacán">Teotihuacán</span>, Mexico begun. <b> 200s BC</b><br /> <span name="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions" id="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</span>, <span href="/wiki/China" title="China">Chinese</span> <span href="/wiki/Philosopher" title="Philosopher">philosopher</span> and sage (<span href="/wiki/371_BC" title="371 BC">371</span>–<span href="/wiki/289_BC" title="289 BC">289 BC</span>)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</span>, geometer (c. <span href="/wiki/365_BC" title="365 BC">365</span>–<span href="/wiki/275_BC" title="275 BC">275 BC</span>)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Ashoka_the_Great" title="Ashoka the Great">Ashoka</span>, <span href="/wiki/Mauryan" title="Mauryan">Mauryan</span> ruler of <span href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</span> (<span href="/wiki/273_BC" title="273 BC">273 BC</span>–<span href="/wiki/232_BC" title="232 BC">232 BC</span>)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes of Syracuse</span>, mathematician, physicist, and engineer (c. <span href="/wiki/287_BC" title="287 BC">287</span>–<span href="/wiki/212_BC" title="212 BC">212 BC</span>)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Eratosthenes" title="Eratosthenes">Eratosthenes</span> (c. <span href="/wiki/276_BC" title="276 BC">276</span>–<span href="/wiki/194_BC" title="194 BC">194 BC</span>), Greek mathematician, geographer and astronomer<br /> <span href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Perga" title="Apollonius of Perga">Apollonius of Perga</span>, mathematician (c. <span href="/wiki/262_BC" title="262 BC">262</span>–<span href="/wiki/190_BC" title="190 BC">190 BC</span>)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Qin_Shi_Huang" title="Qin Shi Huang">Qin Shi Huang</span>, <span href="/wiki/China" title="China">Chinese</span> Emperor (<span href="/wiki/259_BC" title="259 BC">259</span>–<span href="/wiki/210_BC" title="210 BC">210 BC</span>, reigned <span href="/wiki/246_BC" title="246 BC">246</span>–<span href="/wiki/210_BC" title="210 BC">210 BC</span>)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Emperor_Gaozu_of_Han" title="Emperor Gaozu of Han">Emperor Gaozu of Han</span>, founder of the <span href="/wiki/Han_Dynasty" title="Han Dynasty">Han Dynasty</span> in China, (<span href="/wiki/256_BC" title="256 BC">256 BC</span>-<span href="/wiki/195_BC" title="195 BC">195 BC</span>, reigned <span href="/wiki/202_BC" title="202 BC">202 BC</span>-<span href="/wiki/195_BC" title="195 BC">195 BC</span>)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Xiang_Yu" title="Xiang Yu">Xiang Yu</span> (<span href="/wiki/232_BC" title="232 BC">232 BC</span>-<span href="/wiki/202_BC" title="202 BC">202 BC</span>), Chinese rebel general against the Qin Dynasty and arch nemesis of Liu Bang in the <span href="/wiki/Chu-Han_contention" title="Chu-Han contention">Chu-Han contention</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Hannibal" title="Hannibal">Hannibal</span>, military leader of <span href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</span> (<span href="/wiki/247_BC" title="247 BC">247</span>–<span href="/wiki/182_BC" title="182 BC">182 BC</span>)<br /> the "second" <span href="/wiki/Brennus_%283rd_century%29" title="Brennus (3rd century)">Brennus</span>, Gaulish chieftain, invades Macedonia in <span href="/wiki/279_BC" title="279 BC">279 BC</span><br /> The <span href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic dynasty</span> rules <span href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</span><br /> <ul><br /> <li><span href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_of_Egypt" title="Ptolemy I of Egypt">Ptolemy I</span> Soter (<span href="/wiki/305_BC" title="305 BC">305 BC</span>–<span href="/wiki/282_BC" title="282 BC">282 BC</span>) and his wives <span href="/wiki/Eurydice_of_Egypt" title="Eurydice of Egypt">Eurydice</span> and<br /> <span href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_of_Egypt" title="Ptolemy II of Egypt">Ptolemy II</span> Philadelphos (<span href="/wiki/284_BC" title="284 BC">284 BC</span>–<span href="/wiki/246_BC" title="246 BC">246 BC</span>) and his wives <span href="/wiki/Arsinoe_I_of_Egypt" title="Arsinoe I of Egypt">Arsinoe I</span> and <span href="/wiki/Arsinoe_II_of_Egypt" title="Arsinoe II of Egypt">Arsinoe II</span> Philadelphos<br /> <span href="/wiki/Ptolemy_III_of_Egypt" title="Ptolemy III of Egypt">Ptolemy III</span> Euergetes I (<span href="/wiki/246_BC" title="246 BC">246 BC</span>–<span href="/wiki/222_BC" title="222 BC">222 BC</span>) and his wife <span href="/wiki/Berenice_II_of_Egypt" title="Berenice II of Egypt">Berenice II</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Ptolemy_IV_of_Egypt" title="Ptolemy IV of Egypt">Ptolemy IV</span> Philopater (<span href="/wiki/222_BC" title="222 BC">222 BC</span>–<span href="/wiki/204_BC" title="204 BC">204 BC</span>) and his wife <span href="/wiki/Arsinoe_III_of_Egypt" title="Arsinoe III of Egypt">Arsinoe III</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Ptolemy_V_of_Egypt" title="Ptolemy V of Egypt">Ptolemy V</span> Epiphanes (<span href="/wiki/204_BC" title="204 BC">204 BC</span>–<span href="/wiki/180_BC" title="180 BC">180 BC</span>) and his wife <span href="/wiki/Cleopatra_I_of_Egypt" title="Cleopatra I of Egypt">Cleopatra I</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Appius_Claudius_Caecus" title="Appius Claudius Caecus">Appius Claudius Caecus</span>, <span href="/wiki/Aqua_Appia" title="Aqua Appia">Aqua Appia</span>, <span href="/wiki/Via_Appia" title="Via Appia">Via Appia</span>, invented letter <span href="/wiki/G" title="G">G</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Arcesilaus" title="Arcesilaus">Arcesilaus</span>, founder of new <span href="/wiki/Academy" title="Academy">Academy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Manetho" title="Manetho">Manetho</span>, wrote <i>History of Egypt</i><br /> <span href="/wiki/Xun_Zi" title="Xun Zi">Xun Zi</span>, founder of <span href="/wiki/Legalism_%28philosophy%29" title="Legalism (philosophy)">Legalism (philosophy)</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno of Citium</span>, founder of <span href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Bai_Qi" title="Bai Qi">Bai Qi</span>, Chinese general<br /> <span href="/wiki/Song_Yu" title="Song Yu">Song Yu</span>, Chinese poet <img src="http://www.tkasianantiquities.com/portfolio/thumbnails/22.jpg" alt="Third century BCE" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Inventions, discoveries, introductions</b><br /> Much of what we know of this century comes down to us from the works of the Roman historian <span href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</span>, whose main concern is the story of how Rome comes to dominate the known world.<br /> <span name="Decades_and_years" id="Decades_and_years"></span><br /> gigihong07http://www.blogger.com/profile/11750522770505075201noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4326489336682246022.post-56960799706750172432008-04-25T08:48:00.001-07:002008-04-25T08:48:20.808-07:00<img src="http://www.accuweather.com/wxpost/byzip/37620/31/wxport.png" alt="Sullivan County, Tennessee" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <b></b><br /> <b>Sullivan County</b> is a <span href="/wiki/County" title="County">county</span> located in the <span href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">U.S. state</span> of <span href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</span>. As of 2000, the population was 153,048. Its <span href="/wiki/County_seat" title="County seat">county seat</span> is <span href="/wiki/Blountville%2C_Tennessee" title="Blountville, Tennessee">Blountville</span><span href="/wiki/Geographic_references" title="Geographic references"></span>.<br /> <span name="Geography" id="Geography"></span><br /> <img src="http://www.sullivan-county.com/news/rel_war/plaquefalwell.jpg" alt="Sullivan County, Tennessee" align="left" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Geography</b><br /> <span name="Demographics" id="Demographics"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Washington_County%2C_Virginia" title="Washington County, Virginia">Washington County, Virginia</span> & <span href="/wiki/Bristol%2C_Virginia" title="Bristol, Virginia">Bristol, Virginia</span> (northeast)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Johnson_County%2C_Tennessee" title="Johnson County, Tennessee">Johnson County</span> (east)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Carter_County%2C_Tennessee" title="Carter County, Tennessee">Carter County</span> (southeast)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Washington_County%2C_Tennessee" title="Washington County, Tennessee">Washington County</span> (southwest)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Hawkins_County%2C_Tennessee" title="Hawkins County, Tennessee">Hawkins County</span> (west)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Scott_County%2C_Virginia" title="Scott County, Virginia">Scott County, Virginia</span> (northwest) gigihong07http://www.blogger.com/profile/11750522770505075201noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4326489336682246022.post-69663463863889629232008-04-24T08:52:00.000-07:002008-04-24T11:34:35.025-07:00 <b></b><br /> State of <span href="/wiki/Arkansas" title="Arkansas">Arkansas</span><br /> <b>Thomas Carmichael Hindman, Jr.</b> (<span href="/wiki/January_28" title="January 28">January 28</span>, <span href="/wiki/1828" title="1828">1828</span> – <span href="/wiki/September_27" title="September 27">September 27</span>, <span href="/wiki/1868" title="1868">1868</span>) was a <span href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">lawyer</span>, <span href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">United States Representative</span> from the <span href="/wiki/Arkansas%27s_1st_congressional_district" title="Arkansas's 1st congressional district">1st Congressional District</span> of <span href="/wiki/Arkansas" title="Arkansas">Arkansas</span>, and a <span href="/wiki/Major_General" title="Major General">Major General</span> in the <span href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Army" title="Confederate States Army">Confederate States Army</span> during the <span href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</span>.<br /> <span name="Family_background" id="Family_background"></span><br /> <b> Family background</b><br /> The elder Hindman frequently made business trips to <span href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</span>, and even moved the family to Jacksonville, Alabama after buying several lots of land there. Hindman took advantage of the many local business opportunities and was able to provide his family with whatever they needed. Hindman Sr. gained a reputation for honesty with his business associates, which included <span href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee Indian</span> tribes in the area.<br /> <span name="Participation_in_the_Mexican-American_War" id="Participation_in_the_Mexican-American_War"></span><br /> <img src="http://arkansashistory.arkansas.com:8012/cgi-bin/thumbnail.exe%3FCISOROOT%3D/docarkansas%26CISOPTR%3D935" alt="Thomas C. Hindman" align="left" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Early life</b><br /> Soon, the United States Army engaged in fighting at the US-Mexico border. After skirmishes along the <span href="/wiki/Rio_Grande" title="Rio Grande">Rio Grande</span> between Mexican forces and American forces led by <span href="/wiki/General" title="General">General</span> <span href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor" title="Zachary Taylor">Zachary Taylor</span>, Congress approved a declaration of war and President <span href="/wiki/James_K._Polk" title="James K. Polk">James K. Polk</span> called upon the states to draw up 50,000 volunteers to be alongside the army. Mississippi newspapers encouraged state residents to join the action. One newspaper, the <span href="/wiki/Holly_Springs%2C_Mississippi" title="Holly Springs, Mississippi">Holly Springs</span> <i>Guard</i>, proclaimed, "To arms! To arms! Ye brave! Th' avenging sword unsheathe: March on, march on, all hearts resolved, on [to] victory or death."<br /> <span name="Back_in_Mississippi" id="Back_in_Mississippi"></span><br /> <b> Participation in the Mexican-American War</b><br /> After returning back to Ripley, Hindman continued his law studies under Orlando Davis. A year after the war ended Hindman's brother, Robert, engaged in a fight with William Falkner because he had thought Falkner tried to block his membership into the Ripley section of the <span href="/wiki/Sons_of_Temperance" title="Sons of Temperance">Sons of Temperance</span>. Robert Hindman tried to defend himself, but his gun failed to fire, and Falkner then fatally stabbed him. Falkner was tried for murder, but was acquitted by the jury ruling that he was acting in self-defense.<br /> <span name="Move_to_Arkansas" id="Move_to_Arkansas"></span><br /> <b> Back in Mississippi</b><br /> By 1854, Hindman realized that he had little room to maneuver in the crowded Mississippi political arena. Looking across the <span href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</span>, Hindman observed that the young and turbulent State of Arkansas was wide open for a well educated and ambitious politician. Hindman left Mississippi politics when he moved to Helena, Arkansas on <span href="/wiki/March_18" title="March 18">March 18</span>, <span href="/wiki/1854" title="1854">1854</span>.<br /> <span name="Bringing_down_Arkansas.27s_political_.22family.22" id="Bringing_down_Arkansas.27s_political_.22family.22"></span><br /> <b> Move to Arkansas</b><br /> During his term, Hindman tried to bring unity to the state's Democratic Party. He turned on the political hierarchy in the state, and political warfare divided the Democratic Party in Arkansas, with the pro-Hindman forces on one side and the forces of the political "family" that had ruled Arkansas since territorial days on the other. He labeled the actions of the "family" as "the most concentrated wrath of the small managers of the caucus and of certain outside high-priests who manage[d] them."<br /> <span name="The_Civil_War" id="The_Civil_War"></span><br /> <b> Bringing down Arkansas's political "family"</b><br /> As the American Civil War approached, Hindman was an ardent voice for secession and was essentially Arkansas's most prominent <span href="/wiki/Fire-Eaters" title="Fire-Eaters">Fire-Eater</span>. When Arkansas voted 65-5 to secede from the <span href="/wiki/Union_%28American_Civil_War%29" title="Union (American Civil War)">Union</span> in May of 1861, Hindman was present in the gallery of the convention.<br /> <span name="In_charge_of_.22Hindman.27s_Legion.22" id="In_charge_of_.22Hindman.27s_Legion.22"></span><br /> <b> The Civil War</b><br /> Hindman's edicts, however, raised the ire of the local citizenry and they, and Hindman's political enemies, demanded that the Confederate leaders in Richmond replace him. By August of 1862, the authorities in Richmond decided to replace him with the well-meaning but incompetent <span href="/wiki/Theophilus_H._Holmes" title="Theophilus H. Holmes">Theophilus H. Holmes</span>.<br /> <span name="Post-war_activities" id="Post-war_activities"></span><br /> <b> In charge of "Hindman's Legion"</b><br /> Hindman joined Confederate refugees in the Mexican town of Carolota, where he engaged in coffee planting and attempted to practice law. By April 1867, he was confident enough in the situation at home to return to Arkansas and apply to President Andrew Johnson for a pardon.<br /> <span name="Assassination" id="Assassination"></span><br /> <b> See also</b><br /> <span name="External_links" id="External_links"></span><br /> gigihong07http://www.blogger.com/profile/11750522770505075201noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4326489336682246022.post-80157133978571536522008-04-23T09:32:00.001-07:002008-04-23T09:32:51.911-07:00 <b></b><br /> <b>Linden</b> is a <span href="/wiki/City_%28New_Jersey%29" title="City (New Jersey)">city</span> in southeastern <span href="/wiki/Union_County%2C_New_Jersey" title="Union County, New Jersey">Union County</span>, <span href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</span>, <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</span>. It is part of the <span href="/wiki/New_York_Metropolitan_Area" title="New York Metropolitan Area">New York Metropolitan Area</span>, being about 13 miles southwest of <span href="/wiki/Manhattan%2C_New_York" title="Manhattan, New York">Manhattan</span>, and bordering <span href="/wiki/Staten_Island%2C_New_York" title="Staten Island, New York">Staten Island</span>, a borough of <span href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</span>.<br /> Linden was originally formed as a <span href="/wiki/Township_%28New_Jersey%29" title="Township (New Jersey)">township</span> on <span href="/wiki/March_4" title="March 4">March 4</span>, <span href="/wiki/1861" title="1861">1861</span>, from portions of <span href="/wiki/Elizabeth%2C_New_Jersey" title="Elizabeth, New Jersey">Elizabeth</span>, <span href="/wiki/Rahway%2C_New_Jersey" title="Rahway, New Jersey">Rahway</span> and <span href="/wiki/Union_Township%2C_Union_County%2C_New_Jersey" title="Union Township, Union County, New Jersey">Union Township</span>. Portions of the township were taken to form <span href="/wiki/Cranford%2C_New_Jersey" title="Cranford, New Jersey">Cranford</span> (<span href="/wiki/March_14" title="March 14">March 14</span>, <span href="/wiki/1871" title="1871">1871</span>), Linden Borough (<span href="/wiki/March_30" title="March 30">March 30</span>, <span href="/wiki/1882" title="1882">1882</span>) and <span href="/wiki/Roselle%2C_New_Jersey" title="Roselle, New Jersey">Roselle</span> (<span href="/wiki/December_20" title="December 20">December 20</span>, <span href="/wiki/1894" title="1894">1894</span>). Linden was incorporated as a city by an Act of the <span href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Legislature" title="New Jersey Legislature">New Jersey Legislature</span> on <span href="/wiki/January_1" title="January 1">January 1</span>, <span href="/wiki/1925" title="1925">1925</span>, replacing both Linden Township and Linden Borough (which had been formed in 1882 from the township), based on the results of a referendum held on <span href="/wiki/November_8" title="November 8">November 8</span>, <span href="/wiki/1923" title="1923">1923</span>.<br /> <span name="Geography" id="Geography"></span><br /> <b> Geography</b><br /> As of the <span href="/wiki/Census" title="Census">census</span> of 2000, there were 39,394 people, 15,052 households, and 10,084 families residing in the city. The <span href="/wiki/Population_density" title="Population density">population density</span> was 1,407.0/km² (3,645.5/mi²). There were 15,567 housing units at an average density of 556.0/km² (1,440.6/mi²). The racial makeup of the city was 66.08% <span href="/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29" title="White (U.S. Census)">White</span>, 22.80% <span href="/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29" title="African American (U.S. Census)">African American</span>, 0.14% <span href="/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29" title="Native American (U.S. Census)">Native American</span>, 2.35% <span href="/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29" title="Asian (U.S. Census)">Asian</span>, 0.04% <span href="/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29" title="Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)">Pacific Islander</span>, 4.88% from <span href="/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29" title="Race (United States Census)">other races</span>, and 3.71% from two or more races. <span href="/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29" title="Hispanic (U.S. Census)">Hispanic</span> or <span href="/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29" title="Latino (U.S. Census)">Latino</span> of any race were 14.40% of the population.<br /> There were 15,052 households out of which 29.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.7% were <span href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">married couples</span> living together, 15.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.0% were non-families. 27.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.60 and the average family size was 3.21.<br /> In the city the population was spread out with 22.5% under the age of 18, 8.2% from 18 to 24, 30.4% from 25 to 44, 22.7% from 45 to 64, and 16.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 90.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.2 males.<br /> The median income for a household in the city was $46,345, and the median income for a family was $54,903. Males had a median income of $39,457 versus $30,395 for females. The <span href="/wiki/Per_capita_income" title="Per capita income">per capita income</span> for the city was $21,314. About 5.0% of families and 6.4% of the population were below the <span href="/wiki/Poverty_line" title="Poverty line">poverty line</span>, including 8.1% of those under age 18 and 7.8% of those age 65 or over.<br /> <span name="Government" id="Government"></span><br /> <img src="http://www.lindenpl.org/Images/img_building_front_hotspot.gif" alt="Linden, New Jersey" align="left" style="padding:10px" /><img src="http://pics2.city-data.com/w1/lha13843.png" alt="Linden, New Jersey" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Demographics</b><br /> <span name="Local_government" id="Local_government"></span><br /> <b> Government</b><br /> The <span href="/wiki/Mayor" title="Mayor">Mayor</span> of Linden is <span href="http://www.linden-nj.org/council/mayor.htm" class="external text" title="http://www.linden-nj.org/council/mayor.htm" rel="nofollow">Richard J. Gerbounka</span>. Gerbounka, who served twelve years on the City Council and ran an independent, defeated long-time mayor John T. Gregorio by an unofficial vote of 4,786 to 4,717. City Council President Robert Bunk was re-elected unopposed. Democrat Nominee Christopher J. Kolibas defeated independent Pat Hero in the 1st Ward race to replace retiring incumbent Edwin Schulhafer. Incumbent independent Robert Frazier was re-elected in the 9th Ward.<br /> Members of the City Council are:<br /> <span name="Federal.2C_state_and_county_representation" id="Federal.2C_state_and_county_representation"></span><br /> Council President - <span href="http://www.linden-nj.org/council/council_president.htm" class="external text" title="http://www.linden-nj.org/council/council_president.htm" rel="nofollow">Robert F. Bunk</span><br /> First Ward - <span href="http://www.linden-nj.org/council/1st_ward.htm" class="external text" title="http://www.linden-nj.org/council/1st_ward.htm" rel="nofollow">Christopher Kolibas</span><br /> Second Ward - <span href="http://www.linden-nj.org/council/2nd_ward.htm" class="external text" title="http://www.linden-nj.org/council/2nd_ward.htm" rel="nofollow">Richard Koziol</span><br /> Third Ward - <span href="http://www.linden-nj.org/council/3rd_ward.htm" class="external text" title="http://www.linden-nj.org/council/3rd_ward.htm" rel="nofollow">Thomas R. Boland</span><br /> Fourth Ward - <span href="http://www.linden-nj.org/council/4th_ward.htm" class="external text" title="http://www.linden-nj.org/council/4th_ward.htm" rel="nofollow">Derek Armstead</span><br /> Fifth Ward - <span href="http://www.linden-nj.org/council/5th_ward.htm" class="external text" title="http://www.linden-nj.org/council/5th_ward.htm" rel="nofollow">Gene Davis</span><br /> Sixth Ward - <span href="http://www.linden-nj.org/council/6th_ward.htm" class="external text" title="http://www.linden-nj.org/council/6th_ward.htm" rel="nofollow">Charles J. Crane</span><br /> Seventh Ward - <span href="http://www.linden-nj.org/council/7th_ward.htm" class="external text" title="http://www.linden-nj.org/council/7th_ward.htm" rel="nofollow">Ralph Strano</span><br /> Eighth Ward - <span href="http://www.linden-nj.org/council/8th_ward.htm" class="external text" title="http://www.linden-nj.org/council/8th_ward.htm" rel="nofollow">Michele Yamakaitis</span><br /> Ninth Ward - <span href="http://www.linden-nj.org/council/9th_ward.htm" class="external text" title="http://www.linden-nj.org/council/9th_ward.htm" rel="nofollow">Robert Frazier</span><br /> Tenth Ward - <span href="http://www.linden-nj.org/council/10th_ward.htm" class="external text" title="http://www.linden-nj.org/council/10th_ward.htm" rel="nofollow">Mary Ann Dorin</span> <b> Local government</b><br /> Linden is split between the Seventh, Tenth and Thirteenth Congressional Districts and is part of New Jersey's 22nd Legislative District.<br /> <span href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives%2C_New_Jersey_District_7" title="United States House of Representatives, New Jersey District 7">New Jersey's Seventh Congressional District</span>, covering portions of <span href="/wiki/Hunterdon_County%2C_New_Jersey" title="Hunterdon County, New Jersey">Hunterdon County</span>, <span href="/wiki/Middlesex_County%2C_New_Jersey" title="Middlesex County, New Jersey">Middlesex County</span>, <span href="/wiki/Somerset_County%2C_New_Jersey" title="Somerset County, New Jersey">Somerset County</span> and <span href="/wiki/Union_County%2C_New_Jersey" title="Union County, New Jersey">Union County</span>, is represented by <span href="/wiki/Mike_Ferguson_%28New_Jersey%29" title="Mike Ferguson (New Jersey)">Mike Ferguson</span> (<span href="/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29" title="Republican Party (United States)">R</span>). <span href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives%2C_New_Jersey_District_10" title="United States House of Representatives, New Jersey District 10">New Jersey's Tenth Congressional District</span>, covering portions of <span href="/wiki/Essex_County%2C_New_Jersey" title="Essex County, New Jersey">Essex County</span>, <span href="/wiki/Hudson_County%2C_New_Jersey" title="Hudson County, New Jersey">Hudson County</span>, and <span href="/wiki/Union_County%2C_New_Jersey" title="Union County, New Jersey">Union County</span>, is represented by <span href="/wiki/Donald_M._Payne" title="Donald M. Payne">Donald M. Payne</span> (<span href="/wiki/United_States_Democratic_Party" title="United States Democratic Party">D</span>, <span href="/wiki/Newark%2C_New_Jersey" title="Newark, New Jersey">Newark</span>). <span href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives%2C_New_Jersey_District_13" title="United States House of Representatives, New Jersey District 13">New Jersey's Thirteenth Congressional District</span>, covering portions of <span href="/wiki/Essex_County%2C_New_Jersey" title="Essex County, New Jersey">Essex</span>, <span href="/wiki/Hudson_County%2C_New_Jersey" title="Hudson County, New Jersey">Hudson</span>, <span href="/wiki/Middlesex_County%2C_New_Jersey" title="Middlesex County, New Jersey">Middlesex</span>, and <span href="/wiki/Union_County%2C_New_Jersey" title="Union County, New Jersey">Union</span> Counties, is now represented by <span href="/wiki/Albio_Sires" title="Albio Sires">Albio Sires</span> (<span href="/wiki/United_States_Democratic_Party" title="United States Democratic Party">D</span>, <span href="/wiki/West_New_York%2C_New_Jersey" title="West New York, New Jersey">West New York</span>), who won a special election held on <span href="/wiki/November_7" title="November 7">November 7</span>, <span href="/wiki/2006" title="2006">2006</span> to fill the vacancy the had existed since <span href="/wiki/January_16" title="January 16">January 16</span>, <span href="/wiki/2006" title="2006">2006</span>. The seat had been represented by <span href="/wiki/Bob_Menendez" title="Bob Menendez">Bob Menendez</span> (D), who was appointed to the <span href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">United States Senate</span> to fill the seat vacated by <span href="/wiki/Governor_of_New_Jersey" title="Governor of New Jersey">Governor of New Jersey</span> <span href="/wiki/Jon_Corzine" title="Jon Corzine">Jon Corzine</span>. New Jersey is represented in the <span href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</span> by <span href="/wiki/Frank_Lautenberg" title="Frank Lautenberg">Frank Lautenberg</span> (<span href="/wiki/United_States_Democratic_Party" title="United States Democratic Party">D</span>, <span href="/wiki/Cliffside_Park%2C_New_Jersey" title="Cliffside Park, New Jersey">Cliffside Park</span>) and <span href="/wiki/Bob_Menendez" title="Bob Menendez">Bob Menendez</span> (<span href="/wiki/United_States_Democratic_Party" title="United States Democratic Party">D</span>, <span href="/wiki/Hoboken%2C_New_Jersey" title="Hoboken, New Jersey">Hoboken</span>).<br /> The <span href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Legislature#District_22" title="New Jersey Legislature">22nd legislative district</span> of the <span href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Legislature" title="New Jersey Legislature">New Jersey Legislature</span> is represented in the <span href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Senate" title="New Jersey Senate">State Senate</span> by <span href="/wiki/Nicholas_Scutari" title="Nicholas Scutari">Nicholas Scutari</span> (<span href="/wiki/United_States_Democratic_Party" title="United States Democratic Party">D</span>, <strong class="selflink">Linden</strong>) and in the <span href="/wiki/New_Jersey_General_Assembly" title="New Jersey General Assembly">Assembly</span> by <span href="/wiki/Jerry_Green_%28politics%29" title="Jerry Green (politics)">Jerry Green</span> (<span href="/wiki/United_States_Democratic_Party" title="United States Democratic Party">D</span>, <span href="/wiki/Plainfield%2C_New_Jersey" title="Plainfield, New Jersey">Plainfield</span>) and <span href="/wiki/Linda_Stender" title="Linda Stender">Linda Stender</span> (<span href="/wiki/United_States_Democratic_Party" title="United States Democratic Party">D</span>, <span href="/wiki/Scotch_Plains%2C_New_Jersey" title="Scotch Plains, New Jersey">Scotch Plains</span>). The <span href="/wiki/Governor_of_New_Jersey" title="Governor of New Jersey">Governor of New Jersey</span> is <span href="/wiki/Jon_Corzine" title="Jon Corzine">Jon Corzine</span> (<span href="/wiki/United_States_Democratic_Party" title="United States Democratic Party">D</span>, <span href="/wiki/Hoboken%2C_New_Jersey" title="Hoboken, New Jersey">Hoboken</span>).<br /> <span href="/wiki/Union_County%2C_New_Jersey" title="Union County, New Jersey">Union County</span> is governed by a nine-member <span href="/wiki/Board_of_Chosen_Freeholders" title="Board of Chosen Freeholders">Board of Chosen Freeholders</span>. As of the January 2007 reorganization, Union County's Freeholders are Freeholder Chairwoman Bette Jane Kowalski, Freeholder Vice Chairman Angel G. Estrada, Chester Holmes, Adrian O. Mapp, Alexander Mirabella, Rick Proctor, Deborah P. Scanlon, Daniel P. Sullivan and Nancy Ward.<br /> <span name="Union_County_Freeholder_Meetings" id="Union_County_Freeholder_Meetings"></span><br /> <b> Federal, state and county representation</b><br /> Union County Freeholders meet publicly on a monthly basis. Citizens have the ability to provide feedback and comment on issues that concern them. A sample Freeholder meeting held in September 2003 can be viewed by clicking:<br /> <span name="Education" id="Education"></span><br /> <span href="http://www.veotag.com/player/?pid=0ebf430a-c12c-405a-9fe2-699272d0678f" class="external text" title="http://www.veotag.com/player/?pid=0ebf430a-c12c-405a-9fe2-699272d0678f" rel="nofollow">Union County, NJ Freeholder Meeting -- 25 September 2003</span> <b> Union County Freeholder Meetings</b><br /> <span name="Public_schools" id="Public_schools"></span><br /> <b> Public schools</b><br /> <span name="Transportation" id="Transportation"></span><br /> <span href="http://www.smeacademy.org/" class="external text" title="http://www.smeacademy.org/" rel="nofollow">Saints Mary and Elizabeth Academy</span>, <span href="/wiki/Catholic_school" title="Catholic school">Catholic school</span>, Pre-K through 8th grade<br /> Victory Christian Academy, Pre-K through 12th grade <b> Private schools</b><br /> <span name="Highways" id="Highways"></span><br /> <b> Transportation</b><br /> Linden is served by <span href="/wiki/U.S._Route_1/9" title="U.S. Route 1/9">U.S. Route 1/9</span> and <span href="/wiki/Route_27_%28New_Jersey%29" title="Route 27 (New Jersey)">Route 27</span>. It is also the western terminus of <span href="/wiki/Interstate_278" title="Interstate 278">Interstate 278</span>, which travels through all five <span href="/wiki/Borough_%28New_York_City%29" title="Borough (New York City)">boroughs</span> of <span href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</span>.<br /> The <span href="/wiki/Garden_State_Parkway" title="Garden State Parkway">Garden State Parkway</span> and the <span href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Turnpike" title="New Jersey Turnpike">New Jersey Turnpike</span> are located less than a mile west and east of the city limits, respectively.<br /> <span name="Public_Transportation" id="Public_Transportation"></span><br /> <b> Highways</b><br /> Local public transportation is provided by <span href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Transit" title="New Jersey Transit">New Jersey Transit</span> with bus service to <span href="/wiki/Elizabeth%2C_New_Jersey" title="Elizabeth, New Jersey">Elizabeth</span>, <span href="/wiki/Perth_Amboy%2C_New_Jersey" title="Perth Amboy, New Jersey">Perth Amboy</span> and <span href="/wiki/Newark%2C_New_Jersey" title="Newark, New Jersey">Newark</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Transit" title="New Jersey Transit">New Jersey Transit</span> buses <span href="/wiki/112_%28New_Jersey_bus%29" title="112 (New Jersey bus)">112</span> and <span href="/w/index.php?title=115_%28New_Jersey_bus%29&action=edit" class="new" title="115 (New Jersey bus)">115</span> provide local service and interstate service to the <span href="/wiki/Port_Authority_Bus_Terminal" title="Port Authority Bus Terminal">Port Authority Bus Terminal</span> in <span href="/wiki/Midtown_Manhattan" title="Midtown Manhattan">Midtown Manhattan</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Linden_%28NJT_station%29" title="Linden (NJT station)">Linden</span> Train station is on the <span href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Transit" title="New Jersey Transit">NJ Transit's</span> <span href="/wiki/North_Jersey_Coast_Line" title="North Jersey Coast Line">North Jersey Coast Line</span> and the <span href="/wiki/Northeast_Corridor_Line" title="Northeast Corridor Line">Northeast Corridor Line</span>.<br /> <span name="Airport" id="Airport"></span><br /> <b> Public Transportation</b><br /> <span href="/wiki/Linden_Airport" title="Linden Airport">Linden Airport</span> is a small general aviation facility located on the eastern side of the city along <span href="/wiki/U.S._Route_1/9" title="U.S. Route 1/9">U.S. Route 1/9</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Newark_Liberty_International_Airport" title="Newark Liberty International Airport">Newark Liberty International Airport</span> is approximately 15 minutes away.<br /> <span name="Industry" id="Industry"></span><br /> <b> Industry</b><br /> <span name="References" id="References"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Carolyn_Dorin-Ballard" title="Carolyn Dorin-Ballard">Carolyn Dorin-Ballard</span>, professional bowler. gigihong07http://www.blogger.com/profile/11750522770505075201noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4326489336682246022.post-1900779485849337912008-04-22T08:12:00.001-07:002008-04-22T08:12:31.958-07:00 <b></b><br /> <b>Kenwood</b> is an unincorporated <span href="/wiki/Census-designated_place" title="Census-designated place">census-designated place</span> in <span href="/wiki/Sycamore_Township%2C_Hamilton_County%2C_Ohio" title="Sycamore Township, Hamilton County, Ohio">Sycamore Township</span>, <span href="/wiki/Hamilton_County%2C_Ohio" title="Hamilton County, Ohio">Hamilton County, Ohio</span>, <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</span>. The population was 7,423 at the <span href="/wiki/United_States_Census_2000" title="United States Census 2000">2000 census</span>.<br /> <span name="Geography" id="Geography"></span><br /> <img src="http://home.fuse.net/stsaviourchurch/images/mainwindow.jpg" alt="Kenwood, Ohio" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Geography</b><br /> Kenwood is located at <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><span href="http://tools.wikimedia.de/~magnus/geo/geohack.php?pagename=Kenwood%2C_Ohio&params=39_12_21_N_84_22_33_W_city" class="external text" title="http://tools.wikimedia.de/~magnus/geo/geohack.php?pagename=Kenwood%2C_Ohio&params=39_12_21_N_84_22_33_W_city" rel="nofollow"><span title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span style="white-space:nowrap">39°12′21″N,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">84°22′33″W</span></span></span></span> (39.205912, -84.375745).<br /> According to the <span href="/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau" title="United States Census Bureau">United States Census Bureau</span>, the community has a total area of 2.3 <span href="/wiki/Square_mile" title="Square mile">square miles</span> (6.0 <span href="/wiki/Km%C2%B2" title="Km²">km²</span>), all of it land.<br /> <span name="Demographics" id="Demographics"></span><br /> gigihong07http://www.blogger.com/profile/11750522770505075201noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4326489336682246022.post-21268599553927599482008-04-21T10:13:00.001-07:002008-04-21T10:13:06.057-07:00 <b></b><br /> <img src="http://www.durhamcathedral.co.uk/images/graduation_fade.jpg" alt="St Cuthbert Without" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> The parish of <b>St Cuthbert Without</b> or simply <b>St Cuthbert</b> is within the <span href="/wiki/City_of_Carlisle" title="City of Carlisle">City of Carlisle</span> district of <span href="/wiki/Cumbria" title="Cumbria">Cumbria</span>, <span href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</span>.<br /> The parish lies immediately to the south of <span href="/wiki/Carlisle" title="Carlisle">Carlisle</span> itself and comprises the following settlements - Blackwell, Durdar, Carleton, Brisco and Wreay (the first three are usually regarded as outlying parts of Carlisle, although were not part of the former <span href="/wiki/County_borough" title="County borough">county borough</span> of Carlisle). According to the 2001 census it had a population of 2,043.<br /> The civil parish was formed in 1866 and has seen various boundary changes during its existence, mostly due to the expansion of Carlisle, although the former separate parish of Wreay was absorbed in 1934.<br /> The parish is named after <span href="/wiki/Saint_Cuthbert" title="Saint Cuthbert">St Cuthbert's</span> <span href="/wiki/Church" title="Church">Church</span> in Carlisle city centre. The "Without" part of the name means this was the part of the <span href="/wiki/Parish" title="Parish">ecclesiastical parish</span> of St Cuthbert's that was outside the city boundary or walls. The original civil parish of Carlisle St Cuthbert was split in 1866 to form St Cuthbert Without and St Cuthbert Within - the latter of which became part of a merged Carlisle civil parish in 1904.<br /> At one time the parish included the modern Carlisle suburbs and districts of Botchergate, St Nicholas, Currock, Upperby and Harraby.<br /> The <span href="/wiki/M6_motorway" title="M6 motorway">M6</span>, <span href="/wiki/A6_road" title="A6 road">A6</span> and <span href="/wiki/West_Coast_Main_Line" title="West Coast Main Line">West Coast main railway line</span> all run through the parish. The A6 meets the M6 at junction 42 (the Golden Fleece Roundabout) in Carleton. At different times there have been <span href="/wiki/Railway_station" title="Railway station">railway stations</span> at Wreay and Brisco.<br /> The main river in the parish is the <span href="/w/index.php?title=River_Petterill&action=edit" class="new" title="River Petterill">River Petterill</span>.<br /> Carlisle <span href="/wiki/Racecourse" title="Racecourse">Racecourse</span> is situated at Blackwell.<br /> gigihong07http://www.blogger.com/profile/11750522770505075201noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4326489336682246022.post-56422780265556487362008-04-20T08:58:00.001-07:002008-04-20T08:58:23.138-07:00 <b> Background</b><br /> <b>Baryonic <span href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</span></b> is matter composed mostly of baryons (by mass), which includes <span href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</span> of any sort (and thus includes nearly all matter that we may encounter or <span href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">experience</span> in everyday life, including our bodies). <b>Non-baryonic matter</b> is the fundamental <span href="/wiki/Antithesis" title="Antithesis">antithesis</span> of such matter, being any sort of matter that is not primarily composed of baryons. This might include such ordinary matter as <span href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrinos</span> or free <span href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</span>; however, it may also include exotic species of non-baryonic <span href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</span>, such as <span href="/wiki/Supersymmetry" title="Supersymmetry">supersymmetric particles</span>, <span href="/wiki/Axion" title="Axion">axions</span> or <span href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black holes</span>. The distinction between baryonic and non-baryonic matter is important in <span href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">cosmology</span>, because <span href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">Big Bang nucleosynthesis</span> models set tight constraints on the amount of baryonic matter present in the early <span href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</span>.<br /> The very existence of baryons is also a significant issue in cosmology, since we have assumed that the Big Bang produced a state with equal amounts of baryons and anti-baryons. The process by which baryons come to outnumber their antiparticles is called <span href="/wiki/Baryogenesis" title="Baryogenesis">baryogenesis</span> (in contrast to a process by which <span href="/wiki/Lepton" title="Lepton">leptons</span> account for the predominance of matter over antimatter, <span href="/wiki/Leptogenesis_%28physics%29" title="Leptogenesis (physics)">leptogenesis</span>).<br /> <span name="See_also" id="See_also"></span><br /> <b> Baryonic matter</b><br /> <span name="Baryons_in_media" id="Baryons_in_media"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/List_of_baryons" title="List of baryons">List of baryons</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Baryon_number" title="Baryon number">Baryon number</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">Particle physics</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Pentaquark" title="Pentaquark">Pentaquark</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/List_of_particles" title="List of particles">List of particles</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Proton_decay" title="Proton decay">Proton decay</span> <img src="http://images4.wikia.nocookie.net/memoryalpha/en/images/thumb/e/e0/Baryon_sweep.jpg/180px-Baryon_sweep.jpg" alt="Baryon" align="left" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Baryons in media</b><br /> <span name="References_and_further_reading" id="References_and_further_reading"></span><br /> gigihong07http://www.blogger.com/profile/11750522770505075201noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4326489336682246022.post-4908992536979734112008-04-19T10:27:00.001-07:002008-04-19T10:27:29.893-07:00 <b></b><br /> <span href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Poland_%28until_966%29" title="Prehistory of Poland (until 966)">Until 966</span> <span href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_%28966%E2%80%931385%29" title="History of Poland (966–1385)">966–1385</span> <strong class="selflink">1385–1569</strong> <span href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_%281569%E2%80%931795%29" title="History of Poland (1569–1795)">1569–1795</span> <span href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_%281795%E2%80%931918%29" title="History of Poland (1795–1918)">1795–1918</span> <span href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_%281918%E2%80%931939%29" title="History of Poland (1918–1939)">1918–1939</span> <span href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_%281939%E2%80%931945%29" title="History of Poland (1939–1945)">1939–1945</span> <span href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_%281945%E2%80%931989%29" title="History of Poland (1945–1989)">1945–1989</span> <span href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_%281989%E2%80%93present%29" title="History of Poland (1989–present)">1989–present</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Culture_of_Poland#History" title="Culture of Poland">Culture</span> <span href="/wiki/Historical_demography_of_Poland" title="Historical demography of Poland">Demography</span> (<small><span href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">Jews</span></small>) <span href="/wiki/Economy_of_Poland#History" title="Economy of Poland">Economics</span> <span href="/wiki/Politics_of_Poland" title="Politics of Poland">Politics</span> (<small><span href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_monarchs" title="List of Polish monarchs">Monarchs</span> and <span href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_presidents" title="List of Polish presidents">Presidents</span></small>) <span href="/wiki/History_of_the_Polish_Army" title="History of the Polish Army">Military</span> (<small><span href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_wars" title="List of Polish wars">Wars</span></small>) <span href="/wiki/Territorial_changes_of_Poland" title="Territorial changes of Poland">Territorial changes</span> (<small><span href="/wiki/Territorial_changes_of_Poland_after_World_War_II" title="Territorial changes of Poland after World War II">WWII</span></small>)<br /> <b>The Jagiellon Era</b> <span href="/wiki/1385" title="1385">1385</span>-<span href="/wiki/1569" title="1569">1569</span>, was dominated by the union of <span href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</span> with <span href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</span> under the <span href="/wiki/Jagiellon_Dynasty" title="Jagiellon Dynasty">Jagiellon Dynasty</span>, founded by the Lithuanian grand duke <span href="/wiki/Ladislaus_II_of_Poland" title="Ladislaus II of Poland">Jogaila</span>. The partnership proved profitable for the Poles and Lithuanians, who played a dominant role in one of the most powerful empires in <span href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</span> for the next three centuries.<br /> <span name="The_Polish-Lithuanian_Union" id="The_Polish-Lithuanian_Union"></span><br /> <b> The Polish-Lithuanian Union</b><br /> The <span href="/wiki/Jagiellonian" title="Jagiellonian">Jagiellons</span> never recovered their hegemony over <span href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</span>, and the ascendancy of the <span href="/wiki/Ottomans" title="Ottomans">Ottomans</span> foreshadowed the eventual subjection of the entire region to foreign rule; but the half century that followed the <span href="/wiki/Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs" title="Battle of Mohács">Battle of Mohács</span> marked an era of stability, affluence, and cultural advancement unmatched in national history and widely regarded by <span href="/wiki/Poles" title="Poles">Poles</span> as their country's golden age.<br /> <span name="Lithuania_and_Poland_as_European_powers" id="Lithuania_and_Poland_as_European_powers"></span><br /> <b> The "Golden Age" of the Sixteenth Century</b><br /> The <span href="/wiki/Teutonic_Knights" title="Teutonic Knights">Teutonic Knights</span> had been reduced to vassalage, and despite the now persistent threats posed by the Turks and an emerging <span href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russian</span> colossus, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania managed to defend its status as one of the largest and most prominent states of Europe. The wars and diplomacy of the century yielded no dramatic expansion but shielded the country from significant disturbance and permitted significant internal development. An "Eternal Peace" concluded with the Ottoman Turks in <span href="/wiki/1533" title="1533">1533</span> lessened but did not remove the threat of invasion from that quarter.<br /> A lucrative agricultural export market was the foundation for the state wealth. A population boom in the <span href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</span> prompted an increased demand for foodstuffs; the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth became Europe's foremost supplier of grain, which was shipped abroad from the <span href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic</span> seaport of <span href="/wiki/Gdansk" title="Gdansk">Gdansk</span>. Aside from swelling Polish coffers, the prosperous grain trade supported other notable aspects of national development. It reinforced the preeminence of the landowning nobility that received its profits, and it helped to preserve a traditionally rural society and economy at a time when Western Europe had begun moving toward <span href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</span> and <span href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</span>.<br /> <span name="The_Government_of_Poland_and_Lithuania" id="The_Government_of_Poland_and_Lithuania"></span><br /> <b> Lithuania and Poland as European powers</b><br /> In other respects as well, the distinctive features of Jagiellonian Poland ran against the historical trends of early modern Europe. Not the least of those features was its singular governmental structure and practice. In an era that favored the steady accumulation of power within the hands of European monarchs, Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania developed a markedly decentralized system dominated by a <span href="/wiki/Landed" title="Landed">landed</span> <span href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</span> that kept royal authority firmly in check. The Polish nobility, or <span href="/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta">szlachta</span>, enjoyed the considerable benefits of landownership and <span href="/wiki/Serfs" title="Serfs">control over the labor of the peasantry</span>. Nobles were not the masters of life and death of the peasantry, but peasants could not leave the village without permission of village' s noble owner. The szlachta included 7 to 10 percent of the population, making it a very large noble class by European standards. The nobility manifested an impressive group solidarity in spite of great individual differences in wealth and standing. Over time, the gentry introduced a series of royal concessions and guarantees that vested the noble parliament, or Sejm, with decisive control over most aspects of statecraft, including exclusive rights to the making of laws.<br /> In 1505 Sejm concluded that no new law could be established without the agreement of the nobility (the <i>Nihil Novi</i> act). King <span href="/wiki/Alexander_Jagiellon" title="Alexander Jagiellon">Alexander Jagiellon</span> was forced to agree to this settlement. The Sejm operated on the principle of unanimous consent, regarding each noble as irreducibly sovereign. In a further safeguard of minority rights, Polish usage sanctioned the right of a group of gentry to form a <span href="/wiki/Confederation" title="Confederation">confederation</span>, which in effect constituted an uprising aimed at redress of grievances. The nobility also possessed the crucial right to elect the monarch, although the Jagiellons were in practice a hereditary ruling house in all but the formal sense. In fact, Jagiellons had to give privileges to the nobles to encourage them to elect their sons to be the successors. Those privileges reduced king's power. King <span href="/wiki/Sigismund_II_Augustus" title="Sigismund II Augustus">Sigismund II Augustus</span> was the last of Jagiellon dynasty; he had no sons. The prestige of the Jagiellons and the certainty of their succession supplied an element of cohesion that tempered the disruptive forces built into the state system.<br /> In retrospect historians frequently have derided the idiosyncratic, delicate governmental mechanism of Poland and Lithuania as a recipe for anarchy. Although its eventual breakdown contributed greatly to the loss of independence in the <span href="/wiki/Eighteenth_century" title="Eighteenth century">eighteenth century</span>, the system worked reasonably well for 200 years while fostering a spirit of civic liberality unmatched in the Europe of its day. The host of legal protections that the nobility enacted for itself prefigured the rights generally accorded the citizens of modern democracies, and the memory of the "golden freedoms" of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth is an important part of the Poles' present-day sense of their tradition of liberty. On the other hand, the exclusion of the lower nobility from most of those protections caused serious resentment among that largely impoverished class, and the aristocracy passed laws in the early <span href="/wiki/Sixteenth_century" title="Sixteenth century">sixteenth century</span> that made the peasants virtual slaves to the flourishing agricultural enterprises.<br /> <span name="Poland_and_Lithuania_in_the_Reformation_Era" id="Poland_and_Lithuania_in_the_Reformation_Era"></span><br /> <img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Immigration_of_the_Jews.jpg/300px-Immigration_of_the_Jews.jpg" alt="History of Poland (1385-1569)" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b> The Polish Renaissance</b><br /> The population of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was not overwhelmingly <span href="/wiki/Catholic" title="Catholic">Catholic</span> or Polish. This circumstance resulted from the Poland's confederation with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, where ethnic Poles were a distinct minority. In those days, to be Polish was much less an indication of ethnicity than of rank; it was a designation largely reserved for the landed noble class, which included members of Polish and non-Polish origin alike. Generally speaking, the ethnically non Polish noble families of Lithuania adopted the Polish language and culture. As a result, in the eastern territories of the kingdom a Polish or Polonized aristocracy dominated a peasantry whose great majority was neither Polish nor Catholic. This bred resentment that later grew into separate <span href="/wiki/Lithuanians" title="Lithuanians">Lithuanian</span>, <span href="/wiki/Belarusians" title="Belarusians">Belarusian</span>, and <span href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Ukrainian</span> nationalist movements.<br /> In the mid-sixteenth century, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth sought ways to maintain control of the diverse state in spite of two threatening circumstances. First, since the late <span href="/wiki/1400s" title="1400s">1400s</span> a series of ambitious <span href="/wiki/Tsars" title="Tsars">tsars</span> of the house of <span href="/wiki/Rurik" title="Rurik">Rurik</span> had led Russia in competing with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania for influence over the Slavic territories located between the two states. Second, <span href="/wiki/Sigismund_II_Augustus" title="Sigismund II Augustus">Sigismund II Augustus</span> (<span href="/wiki/1548" title="1548">1548</span>-<span href="/wiki/1572" title="1572">1572</span>) had no male heir. The Jagiellon Dynasty, the essential link between the states, would end after his reign. Accordingly, the <span href="/wiki/Union_of_Lublin" title="Union of Lublin">Union of Lublin</span> of <span href="/wiki/1569" title="1569">1569</span> transformed a loose confederation and a personal union of the Jagiellonian epoch into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, deepening and formalizing the bonds between Poland and Lithuania. See also <span href="/wiki/Muscovite_wars" title="Muscovite wars">Muscovite wars</span>.<br /> <span name="References" id="References"></span><br /> gigihong07http://www.blogger.com/profile/11750522770505075201noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4326489336682246022.post-31945858019925874192008-04-18T08:57:00.001-07:002008-04-18T08:57:21.218-07:00 <b> The characters</b><br /> The contestants had to complete a number of tasks in order to achieve their overall goal (e.g. regain their crystal and return to their ship). Many tasks involved the <i>drogna</i>, a small transparent plastic disc containing a solid geometric figure, which was the currency of Arg. The value of a drogna was its numbered position in the <span href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">visible spectrum</span> multiplied by the number of sides of the figure. For example, a red circle is worth one unit, an orange circle is worth two units, a red triangle and a yellow circle are both worth three, and so on.<br /> Tasks which often appeared included:<br /> <span name="Episodes" id="Episodes"></span><br /> A simple computer game where <i>Dogran</i>, a <span href="/wiki/Liverpudlian" title="Liverpudlian">Liverpudlian</span>-accented 'dog', had to be guided around a 3D maze.<br /> Belts around the contestants' waists attached to cords tying them to the wall; there was a predictable function governing the maximum distances of all the cords, which had to be discovered by induction.<br /> The Drogna Game, which came in the middle of the programme, giving the contestants their opportunity to regain the crystal. The game is played by two players: one would be a contestant and the other would be a creature known as the Red <span href="/wiki/Salamander" title="Salamander">Salamander</span> of Zardil. This game became so popular that <span href="/wiki/Acornsoft" title="Acornsoft">Acornsoft</span> released a version for the <span href="/wiki/BBC_Micro" title="BBC Micro">BBC Micro</span> home computer.<br /> <ul><br /> <li>The floor is marked out with symbols similar to those described above on drognas; the players stand at opposite sides of the board, and the crystal is placed in the centre.<br /> There is a rule determining whether a user is allowed to move from a particular drogna to another drogna. (One common example is: A player may move to any drogna with the same colour or shape as the one on which they started the turn. For example, you may move from a red triangle to any red shape or a triangle of any colour.)<br /> A player may only move to an adjacent drogna. However, a player may move across multiple drognas in one turn provided they <i>all</i> meet the given criteria. Hence, the drogna on which the player started the turn is not necessarily the drogna they have immediately left.<br /> If a player breaks the movement rule, the crystal retracts such that it cannot be taken.<br /> If a player becomes adjacent to the crystal and it is not taken or retracted, the player may take the crystal.<br /> If, during the move of the player not carrying the crystal, that player can legally step onto a drogna currently occupied by the player holding the crystal, they may take the crystal from their opponent. This is known as the Hargreaves Rule.<br /> A player wins by reaching the edge of the board while carrying the crystal.<br /> How many Argons around the pond. This was a game played just before the Vortex (possibly a time filler, if the contestants completed the whole game too fast, as it was not always played every show) The winner(s) (everyone had a chance to win) received a <i>Green Cheese roll</i> to triumphant fanfare. This <i>Green cheese roll</i> was of use when playing the Vortex (see below). <i>Gandor</i> would compere the game, it would start on a table with a number of <i>drogna</i> inside a velvet bag with draw strings. He would shake the bag and withdraw some drogna and place them on the table, then asking the first contestant "How many Argons are around the pond?" The contestants would start by adding the sides or points of the solid geometric figure that the drogna's had and fail to guess the right number. The key was that Gandor would place his fingers on the table top as he said "How many Argons are around the pond?" The number of fingers he would place down on the table would be the correct answer. Most people did not guess the answer or they would just happen to get it right by mistake.<br /> The <span href="/wiki/Vortex" title="Vortex">Vortex</span> (series 2 - 4). This was the last task in the programme. To return to their ship, the players had to jump between a grid of points, taking turns with the Vortex, another "player" (shown by a video effect generated pulsating column in series 2, and a computer-generated flashing column in series 3 & 4). If the human player jumped into the Vortex, it would explode and the human, who would lose the game, was said to have been "<span href="/wiki/Evaporated" title="Evaporated">evaporated</span>", meaning a long trip back home which had to be walked by foot along the interplanetary highway (Earth is a long way from Arg!). The important difficulty was that the human player could not see the position of the Vortex on the grid. Players would sometimes be permitted to buy <i>Green cheese rolls</i> or food with their leftover drognas, and this food could be thrown onto suspect squares to test for the presence of the Vortex. Players would sometimes put their Arg Crystal down to test the suspect square, except the Arg Crystal was never evaporated and not a good indicator of the vortex's position. Milk used in this way would, of course, become <span href="/wiki/Evaporated_milk" title="Evaporated milk">evaporated milk</span>. <img src="http://freegamesnews.com/en/wp-content/uploads/2006/04/Fancy%2520Pants%2520Adventure-2-300.jpg" alt="The Adventure Game" align="left" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Common tasks</b><br /> Where known, and applicable, the contestants are listed below in the order in which they played the Vortex game: [E] = evaporated, [S] = survived, [n/a] = didn't play.<br /> <span name="Series_1" id="Series_1"></span><br /> <b> Episodes</b><br /> Originally broadcast in 1980 on BBC1 on Saturday mornings. Repeated in 1980 on BBC2 on Saturday mid-afternoons. Note: The final game of series 1 was not the Vortex - The travellers had to recross a grid of different coloured shapes in a particular path or they would be "vapourised". Where known, the contestants are listed in order in which they crossed and if they were Vapourised [V] or Survived [S].<br /> <span name="Series_2" id="Series_2"></span><br /> Episode 1: 24 May 1980, 9:29am-9:55am (repeated 27 September 1980, 3:12pm-3:38pm); 26 minutes; <span href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Estensen" title="Elizabeth Estensen">Elizabeth Estensen</span> [S], <span href="/wiki/Fred_Harris_%28presenter%29" title="Fred Harris (presenter)">Fred Harris</span> [S], Mark Dugdale [S]<br /> Episode 2: 31 May 1980, 9:32am-10:09am (repeated 4 October 1980, 4:30pm-5:07pm); 37 minutes; <span href="/wiki/Liza_Goddard" title="Liza Goddard">Liza Goddard</span>, <span href="/wiki/Michael_Rodd" title="Michael Rodd">Michael Rodd</span>, Stephen Cox<br /> Episode 3: 7 June 1980, 9:46am-10:23am (repeated 11 October 1980, 4:42pm-5:19pm); 37 minutes; <span href="/w/index.php?title=Pat_Cater&action=edit" class="new" title="Pat Cater">Pat Cater</span> [V], <span href="/wiki/Maggie_Philbin" title="Maggie Philbin">Maggie Philbin</span> [V], <span href="/wiki/James_Burke_%28science_historian%29" title="James Burke (science historian)">James Burke</span> [V]<br /> Episode 4: 14 June 1980, 9:35am-10:04am (repeated 18 October 1980, 4:00pm-4:29pm); 29 minutes; <span href="/wiki/Denise_Coffey" title="Denise Coffey">Denise Coffey</span>, Dr. <span href="/w/index.php?title=Garry_Hunt&action=edit" class="new" title="Garry Hunt">Garry Hunt</span>, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Toby_Freeman&action=edit" class="new" title="Toby Freeman">Toby Freeman</span> [final game not played]<br /> Episode 5: 21 June 1980, 9:09am-9:54am (repeated 25 October 1980, 3:40pm-4:25pm); 45 minutes; <span href="/wiki/Lesley_Judd" title="Lesley Judd">Lesley Judd</span> [V], <span href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Malos&action=edit" class="new" title="Robert Malos">Robert Malos</span> [V], <span href="/wiki/Paul_Darrow" title="Paul Darrow">Paul Darrow</span> [V] <b> Series 1</b><br /> Originally broadcast in 1981 on BBC2 on Monday early-evenings. Repeated in 1982 on BBC1 on Friday late-afternoons.<br /> <span name="Series_3" id="Series_3"></span><br /> Episode 1: 2 November 1981, 6:04pm-6:49pm (repeated 28 May 1982, 4:53pm-5:38pm); 45 minutes; <span href="/wiki/Graeme_Garden" title="Graeme Garden">Graeme Garden</span> [n/a], <span href="/wiki/Carol_Chell" title="Carol Chell">Carol Chell</span> [E], <span href="/wiki/Nicolas_Hammond" title="Nicolas Hammond">Nicolas Hammond</span> [E]<br /> Episode 2: 9 November 1981, 6:04pm-6:49pm (repeated 4 June 1982, 4:52pm-5:37pm); 45 minutes; <span href="/wiki/Madeline_Smith" title="Madeline Smith">Madeline Smith</span> [E], <span href="/wiki/David_Yip" title="David Yip">David Yip</span> [E], <span href="/w/index.php?title=Derek_Gale&action=edit" class="new" title="Derek Gale">Derek Gale</span> [n/a]<br /> Episode 3: 16 November 1981, 6:05pm-6:50pm (repeated 11 June 1982, 5:52pm-6:37pm); 45 minutes; <span href="/wiki/David_Singmaster" title="David Singmaster">David Singmaster</span>, <span href="/wiki/Sue_Cook" title="Sue Cook">Sue Cook</span>, Philip Sheppard<br /> Episode 4: 23 November 1981, 6:05pm-6:49pm (repeated 18 June 1982, 4:54pm-5:38pm); 44 minutes; <span href="/w/index.php?title=Tessa_Hamp&action=edit" class="new" title="Tessa Hamp">Tessa Hamp</span>, <span href="/wiki/Nerys_Hughes" title="Nerys Hughes">Nerys Hughes</span>, <span href="/wiki/Derek_Griffiths" title="Derek Griffiths">Derek Griffiths</span><br /> Episode 5: 30 November 1981, 6:08pm-6:53pm (repeated 25 June 1982, 4:53pm-5:38pm); 45 minutes; <span href="/wiki/John_Craven" title="John Craven">John Craven</span>, Bill Green, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Kirsty_Miller&action=edit" class="new" title="Kirsty Miller">Kirsty Miller</span> <b> Series 2</b><br /> Originally broadcast in 1984 on BBC2 on Thursday early-evenings. Repeated in 1985 on BBC2 on Thursday early-evenings.<br /> <span name="Series_4" id="Series_4"></span><br /> Episode 1: 2 February 1984, 5:39pm-6:18pm (repeated 5 September 1985, 6:49pm-7:28pm); 39 minutes; <span href="/wiki/Sarah_Greene" title="Sarah Greene">Sarah Greene</span>, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Anne_Miller&action=edit" class="new" title="Anne Miller">Anne Miller</span>, <span href="/wiki/Richard_Stilgoe" title="Richard Stilgoe">Richard Stilgoe</span><br /> Episode 2: 9 February 1984, 5:40pm-6:18pm (repeated 12 September 1985, 6:50pm-7:28pm); 38 minutes; <span href="/wiki/Sue_Nicholls" title="Sue Nicholls">Sue Nicholls</span>, <span href="/wiki/Duncan_Goodhew" title="Duncan Goodhew">Duncan Goodhew</span>, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Emma_Disley&action=edit" class="new" title="Emma Disley">Emma Disley</span>.<br /> Episode 3: 16 February 1984, 5:39pm-6:19pm (repeated 19 September 1985, 6:49pm-7:29pm); 40 minutes; <span href="/wiki/Sandra_Dickinson" title="Sandra Dickinson">Sandra Dickinson</span>, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Chris_Searle&action=edit" class="new" title="Chris Searle">Chris Searle</span>, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Tandy&action=edit" class="new" title="Adam Tandy">Adam Tandy</span><br /> Episode 4: 23 February 1984, 5:40pm-6:19pm (repeated 26 September 1985, 6:50pm-7:29pm); 39 minutes; <span href="/w/index.php?title=Paul_McDowell&action=edit" class="new" title="Paul McDowell">Paul McDowell</span>, <span href="/wiki/Bonnie_Langford" title="Bonnie Langford">Bonnie Langford</span>, <span href="/wiki/Christopher_Hughes" title="Christopher Hughes">Christopher Hughes</span><br /> Episode 5: 1 March 1984, 5:39pm-6:18pm (repeated 3 October 1985, 6:49pm-7:28pm); 39 minutes; <span href="/wiki/Janet_Fielding" title="Janet Fielding">Janet Fielding</span> [E], <span href="/w/index.php?title=Nigel_Crocket&action=edit" class="new" title="Nigel Crocket">Nigel Crocket</span> [S], <span href="/wiki/Neil_Adams" title="Neil Adams">Neil Adams</span> [n/a - was evaporated earlier by the Rangdo when he presented His Royal Highness with salt, which annoyed him.]<br /> Episode 6: 8 March 1984, 5:40pm-6:25pm (repeated 10 October 1985, 6:49pm-7:34pm); 45 minutes; <span href="/wiki/Fern_Britton" title="Fern Britton">Fern Britton</span>, <span href="/wiki/Noel_Edmonds" title="Noel Edmonds">Noel Edmonds</span>, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Ray_Virr&action=edit" class="new" title="Ray Virr">Ray Virr</span> <b> Series 3</b><br /> Originally broadcast in 1986 on BBC2 on Tuesday early-evenings. Repeated in recent years on the digital TV channel <span href="/wiki/Challenge" title="Challenge">Challenge</span>.<br /> <span name="Signature_tune" id="Signature_tune"></span><br /> Episode 1: 7 January 1986, 6:49pm-7:28pm; 39 minutes; <span href="/w/index.php?title=Sheelagh_Gilbey&action=edit" class="new" title="Sheelagh Gilbey">Sheelagh Gilbey</span> [S], <span href="/w/index.php?title=Roy_Kane&action=edit" class="new" title="Roy Kane">Roy Kane</span> [E], <span href="/wiki/Ian_McNaught-Davis" title="Ian McNaught-Davis">Ian McNaught-Davis</span> [S]<br /> Episode 2: 14 January 1986, 6:50pm-7:29pm; 39 minutes; <span href="/wiki/Johnny_Ball" title="Johnny Ball">Johnny Ball</span> [E], <span href="/wiki/Barbara_Lott" title="Barbara Lott">Barbara Lott</span> [E], <span href="/w/index.php?title=Liz_Hobbs&action=edit" class="new" title="Liz Hobbs">Liz Hobbs</span> [E]<br /> Episode 3: 21 January 1986, 6:49pm-7:28pm; 39 minutes; <span href="/w/index.php?title=David_Sandeman&action=edit" class="new" title="David Sandeman">David Sandeman</span> [E], <span href="/w/index.php?title=Fiona_Kennedy&action=edit" class="new" title="Fiona Kennedy">Fiona Kennedy</span> [E], <span href="/wiki/Ian_McCaskill" title="Ian McCaskill">Ian McCaskill</span> [S]<br /> Episode 4: 4 February 1986, 6:52pm-7:30pm; 38 minutes; Prof. <span href="/wiki/Heinz_Wolff" title="Heinz Wolff">Heinz Wolff</span> [S], <span href="/w/index.php?title=Deborah_Leigh_Hall&action=edit" class="new" title="Deborah Leigh Hall">Deborah Leigh Hall</span> [E], <span href="/wiki/Ruth_Madoc" title="Ruth Madoc">Ruth Madoc</span> [S]<br /> Episode 5: 11 February 1986, 6:50pm-7:28pm; 38 minutes; <span href="/wiki/Joanna_Munro" title="Joanna Munro">Joanna Munro</span> [S], <span href="/w/index.php?title=Val_Prince&action=edit" class="new" title="Val Prince">Val Prince</span> [S], <span href="/wiki/George_Layton" title="George Layton">George Layton</span> [S]<br /> Episode 6: 18 February 1986, 6:49pm-7:28pm; 39 minutes; <span href="/wiki/Heather_Couper" title="Heather Couper">Heather Couper</span> [E], <span href="/wiki/Keith_Chegwin" title="Keith Chegwin">Keith Chegwin</span> [E], <span href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Gilbey&action=edit" class="new" title="Adam Gilbey">Adam Gilbey</span> [E] (The broadcast of this episode was postponed from 28 January 1986 due to coverage of the <span href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster" title="Space Shuttle Challenger disaster">Space Shuttle Challenger disaster</span>.) <b> Signature tune</b><br /> Master tapes of the following episodes no longer exist - the tapes were deliberately wiped by the BBC in order to reuse them:<br /> *Off air recordings of these episodes have been returned to the BBC (they would still be interested in obtaining better quality versions).<br /> <span name="External_links" id="External_links"></span><br /> Series 1, Episode 2 - Saturday 31 May 1980. Liza Goddard, Michael Rodd, Stephen Cox.<br /> Series 1, Episode 5* - Saturday 21 June 1980. Paul Darrow, Lesley Judd, Robert Malos.<br /> Series 2, Episode 2* - Monday 9 November 1981. Madeleine Smith, David Yip, Derek Gale.<br /> Series 2, Episode 4 - Monday 23 November 1981. Tessa Hamp, Nerys Hughes, Derek Griffiths. gigihong07http://www.blogger.com/profile/11750522770505075201noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4326489336682246022.post-48927079215048618412008-04-17T09:36:00.001-07:002008-04-17T09:36:18.411-07:00<img src="http://www.tcd.ie/Maps/buildings/regent_house.jpg" alt="Regent House" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b></b><br /> The <b>Regent House</b> is the name given to the official governing body of the <span href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</span>. It consists of most <span href="/wiki/Academic" title="Academic">academic</span> and academic-related staff of the University's <span href="/wiki/Colleges" title="Colleges">colleges</span> and departments, and currently has over 3000 members.<br /> Meetings of the Regent House are known as <span href="/wiki/Congregation_%28university%29" title="Congregation (university)">congregations</span>, and are chaired by the <span href="/wiki/Chancellor_%28education%29" title="Chancellor (education)">Chancellor</span>, the <span href="/wiki/Vice_Chancellor" title="Vice Chancellor">Vice Chancellor</span>, or the master of one of the colleges. In recent times, very few Congregations have actually been held, with most important business conducted by postal ballot of its members. The main exceptions are those to award degrees, with the largest being held at the end of <span href="/wiki/Easter" title="Easter">Easter</span> term when undergraduates receive their degrees in sessions spread over three days known as <i>General Admission</i>.<br /> Such Congregations are held in the University's <span href="/wiki/Senate_House_%28Cambridge_University%29" title="Senate House (Cambridge University)">Senate House</span>.<br /> gigihong07http://www.blogger.com/profile/11750522770505075201noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4326489336682246022.post-26732553367668209932008-04-16T08:09:00.001-07:002008-04-16T08:09:44.167-07:00 <b></b><br /> <i><b>Moby-Dick</b></i> is a <span href="/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">novel</span> by <span href="/wiki/Herman_Melville" title="Herman Melville">Herman Melville</span>. Written in <span href="/wiki/1851_in_literature" title="1851 in literature">1851</span>, the story recounts the adventures of its central character, Ishmael and his voyage on the <span href="/wiki/Whaling" title="Whaling">whaling ship</span> <i><span href="/wiki/Pequod_%28Moby-Dick%29" title="Pequod (Moby-Dick)">Pequod</span>,</i> commanded by Captain Ahab. Believing he has signed on to an average ship, Ishmael soon learns that Ahab intends to use the Pequod and her crew, not to hunt whales for market trade but rather to hunt one specific whale; Moby Dick, a great white whale known throughout the maritime world for his legendary size and ferocity. In a previous encounter the whale destroyed Ahab's ship and in the process, caused the captain to lose his leg. Ahab now intends to exact revenge, not in service of his fellow whalers but to settle his own personal vendetta.<br /> In telling an apparently simple story Melville employs stylised language, symbolism and metaphor to explore an number of complex themes which he believes are universal. Through the main character's journey the concepts of class and social status, good and evil and finally, the existence of God are all examined as Ishmael attempts to determine what his personal beliefs are and who he is as an individual. The narrator's reflections, along with his descriptions of a sailor's life aboard a whaling ship are woven into the narrative along with <span href="/wiki/Shakespearean" title="Shakespearean">Shakespearean</span> literary devices such as stage directions, extended <span href="/wiki/Soliloquies" title="Soliloquies">soliloquies</span> and <span href="/wiki/Asides" title="Asides">asides</span>.<br /> Often considered the <span href="/wiki/Embodiment" title="Embodiment">epitome</span> of <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">American</span> <span href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</span>, Moby Dick was first published by Richard Bentley in <span href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</span> on <span href="/wiki/October_18" title="October 18">October 18</span>, <span href="/wiki/1851" title="1851">1851</span> in an expurgated three-volume edition entitled <i><b>The Whale</b></i>, and later as one massive volume, by <span href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</span> publisher <span href="/wiki/Harper_and_Row" title="Harper and Row">Harper and Brothers</span> as <i><b>Moby-Dick; or, The Whale</b></i> on <span href="/wiki/November_14" title="November 14">November 14</span>, <span href="/wiki/1851" title="1851">1851</span>. The first line of Chapter One—"Call me <span href="/wiki/Ishmael_%28Moby-Dick%29" title="Ishmael (Moby-Dick)">Ishmael</span>."—is one of the most famous in literature. Although the book initially received negative reviews, <i>Moby-Dick</i> is now considered one of the <span href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">greatest novels</span> in the <span href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English language</span> and has secured Melville's place among America's greatest writers.<br /> <span name="Historical_background" id="Historical_background"></span><br /> <b> Historical background</b><br /> <i>Moby-Dick</i> is a highly <span href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">symbolic</span> work, and is interesting in that it also addresses issues such as <span href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</span>. Other themes include <span href="/wiki/Obsession" title="Obsession">obsession</span>, <span href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</span>, <span href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealism</span> versus <span href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatism</span>, <span href="/wiki/Revenge" title="Revenge">revenge</span>, <span href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</span>, <span href="/wiki/Hierarchical" title="Hierarchical">hierarchical</span> <span href="/wiki/Interpersonal_relationship" title="Interpersonal relationship">relationships</span>, and <span href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</span>.<br /> <span name="Symbolism" id="Symbolism"></span><br /> <b> Major themes</b><br /> All of the members of the <i>Pequod</i>'s crew have <span href="/wiki/Biblical" title="Biblical">biblical</span>-sounding, improbable, or descriptive names, and the narrator deliberately avoids specifying the exact time of the events and some other similar details. These together suggest that the narrator—and not just Melville—is deliberately casting his tale in an <span href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epic</span> and <span href="/wiki/Allegorical" title="Allegorical">allegorical</span> mode.<br /> The white whale itself, for example, has been read as symbolically representative of <span href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">good and evil</span>, as has <span href="/wiki/Ahab" title="Ahab">Ahab</span>. The white whale has also been seen as a <span href="/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor">metaphor</span> for the elements of life that are out of our control, or <span href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</span>.<br /> The <i>Pequod's</i> quest to hunt down Moby-Dick itself is also widely viewed as allegorical. To Ahab, killing the whale becomes the ultimate <span href="/wiki/Objective_%28goal%29" title="Objective (goal)">goal</span> in his life, and this observation can also be expanded allegorically so that the whale represents everyone's goals. Furthermore, his vengeance against the whale is analogous to man's struggle against <span href="/wiki/Fate" title="Fate">fate</span>. The only escape from Ahab's vision is seen through the <i>Pequod's</i> occasional encounters with other ships, called gams. Readers could consider what exactly Ahab will do if he, in fact, succeeds in his <span href="/wiki/Quest" title="Quest">quest</span>: having accomplished his ultimate goal, what else is there left for him to do? Similarly, Melville may be implying that people in general need something to reach for in life, or that such a goal can destroy one if allowed to overtake all other concerns. Some such things are hinted at early on in the book, when the main character, Ishmael, is sharing a cold bed with his newfound friend, Queequeg:<br /> .. truely to enjoy bodily warmth, some small part of you must be cold, for there is no quality in this world that is not what it is merely by contrast. Nothing exists in itself. If you flatter yourself that you are all over comfortable, and have been so a long time, then you cannot be said to be comfortable any more. — <i>Moby-Dick</i>, Ch. 11<br /> Ahab's <span href="/wiki/Smoking_pipe_%28tobacco%29" title="Smoking pipe (tobacco)">pipe</span> is widely looked upon as the riddance of happiness in Ahab's life. By throwing the pipe overboard, Ahab signifies that he no longer can enjoy simple pleasures in life; instead, he dedicates his entire life to the pursuit of his <span href="/wiki/Obsession" title="Obsession">obsession</span>, the killing of the white whale, Moby-Dick.<br /> A number of biblical themes occur. The book contains multiple implicit and explicit allusions to the story of <span href="/wiki/Jonah" title="Jonah">Jonah</span>, in addition to the use of certain biblical names (see <span href="#Characters_in_Moby-Dick" title="">below</span>).<br /> Ishmael's musings also allude to themes common among the American <span href="/wiki/Transcendentalists" title="Transcendentalists">Transcendentalists</span> and parallel certain themes in European <span href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</span> and the philosophy of <span href="/wiki/Hegel" title="Hegel">Hegel</span>. In the poetry of <span href="/wiki/Walt_Whitman" title="Walt Whitman">Whitman</span> and the prose writings of <span href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</span> and <span href="/wiki/Thoreau" title="Thoreau">Thoreau</span>, a ship at sea is sometimes a metaphor for the soul.<br /> <span name="Whale_biology_and_ecology" id="Whale_biology_and_ecology"></span><br /> <b> Symbolism</b><br /> Sections of the novel depart from the progression of the <span href="/wiki/Plot_%28narrative%29" title="Plot (narrative)">plot</span> entirely and discuss at great length the biology and ecology of whales and related species. Many of the claims are inaccurate —- for example, Ishmael insists that the whale is a <span href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</span>, although they had been <span href="/wiki/Systema_Naturae" title="Systema Naturae">classified</span> as <span href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</span> for almost a century (which he acknowledges dismissively). Melville, of course, knew better.<br /> <span name="Plot_summary" id="Plot_summary"></span><br /> <b> Whale biology and ecology</b><br /> "<span href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/etymology" class="extiw" title="wikt:etymology">Etymology</span>" is the first of two prefaces of sorts. "Supplied by a late consumptive usher to a grammar school", the word origins are for <i>whale</i>. Not only are Classical, Romance, and Germanic languages featured but also the usually overlooked "Fegee" (<span href="/wiki/Fijian_language" title="Fijian language">Fijian</span>) and "Erromangoan" (<span href="/wiki/Erromanga_languages" title="Erromanga languages">Erromanga</span>). The second preface is "Extracts", excerpts on whales culled from numerous works by "a sub-sub-librarian". Listed mostly chronologically, the quotations come from fiction, poetry, plays, anonymous sea chanties, the Bible and other religious works, legal references, histories, scientific and naturalist treatises, biographies, economic studies, philosophical texts, travelogues, reading primers, etc. The range shows a number of ways of looking at whales and the people who hunt them and use them, from <span href="/wiki/Materialist" title="Materialist">materialist</span> to <span href="/wiki/Political" title="Political">political</span> to <span href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</span>. Only one of the extracts is authored by a woman.<br /> Then comes Chapter 1, "Loomings", when Ishmael, with a mixture of chattiness, seriousness, and humor, begins to talk to the reader about his temperament, the call of the sea, and his contention that every man wants at least once in his life to leave the land behind for the ocean.<br /> Aiming to join a whaling crew, Ishmael heads for <span href="/wiki/Nantucket" title="Nantucket">Nantucket</span>, the older of the two U.S. centers of the whaling industry. Time problems force him to stop for the night in the newer, more powerful whaling center of <span href="/wiki/New_Bedford%2C_Massachusetts" title="New Bedford, Massachusetts">New Bedford, Massachusetts</span>. Lacking money, he lodges at the Spouter Inn. The innkeeper, Peter Coffin, puts him in a room with the mysterious tattooed cannibal <span href="/wiki/Queequeg" title="Queequeg">Queequeg</span>, a harpooner. The two quickly become fast friends; Ishmael even humorously calls the relationship a "marriage", and he joins Queequeg in worshipping his idol god.<br /> The two decide to enlist together on the <i>Pequod</i>, a whaler owned by three captains: Peleg, Bildad, and Ahab. Ishmael and Queequeg have yet to meet their captain when they sign <span href="/wiki/Articled_clerk" title="Articled clerk">ship's articles</span>, Queequeg drawing a peculiar mark identical to one of his tattoos. Soon enough they discover that Ahab is captain for this voyage, which Peleg and Bildad hope will reap a substantial financial windfall.<br /> As the ship sets sail, other main characters are introduced: the three mates, Starbuck, Stubb, and Flask; and the three remaining harpooners, Daggoo, Tashtego, and Fedallah. For several days, though, an ill Ahab stays below decks, completely out of sight from the common sailors. Ahab finally emerges and plants himself on the quarter-deck, leading Ishmael to ponder his captain's missing leg and the ivory replacing it.<br /> The extremely enigmatic Ahab broods and behaves erratically. He paces the deck, thudding his ivory heel. Stubb suggests that he dampen the sound, but Ahab, furious, calls him a dog. When Stubb objects to the insult, Ahab says, "Then be called ten times a donkey, and a mule, and an ass, and begone, or I'll clear the world of thee!"<br /> Ahab's eccentricities multiply and intensify. He throws his pipe off the ship. He asks his crew to yell more loudly if they spot a white whale. Then he tells the crew that a <span href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</span> <span href="/wiki/Doubloon" title="Doubloon">doubloon</span> will go to the crewman who first spots a "white-headed whale with a wrinkled brow and a crooked jaw". He then nails the coin to the ship's mast, saying, "God hath struck a cord on this here coin!"<br /> It turns out Tashtego has heard of this white whale, which he says some call "Moby Dick". Starbuck reveals that Moby Dick took Captain Ahab's leg. With pressure on him mounting, Ahab admits that for him the voyage of the <i>Pequod</i> has no other purpose than to have his vengeance on Moby Dick.<br /> Over the course of the story, the reader is presented with numerous apparent digressions giving scenes and details of whales, the whaling industry, and everyday whaling life. These digressions—sometimes funny, sometimes eerie, and sometimes a combination—often shed light on the ocean of symbolisms and profundities Melville gathers, delves into, plays with, and sometimes strains to surface from. On the other hand, there is always a forward-driving adventure story highlighting various whale sightings, whale hunts, and encounters (again, sometimes spooky or humorous) with other whalers. The combination of more typical plot elements with many other exploratory and curious styles and registers allows Melville to encapsulate and expand on the localized and cosmic significances of a way of life already in decline.<br /> Toward the end of the novel, the <i>Pequod</i> nears Moby Dick's territory and encounters the <i>Rachel</i>, the master of which quickly rows over to the <i>Pequod</i>. He begs Ahab for help in finding a whaling-crew lost in the previous day's hunt, a crew that includes the son of the <i>Rachel</i> captain. When Ahab hears that the whale involved in the crew's disappearance was Moby Dick, he flatly refuses to help the <i>Rachel</i> so he can take up his own search for the whale.<br /> The journey comes to its dramatic and tragic end when the <i>Pequod</i>, sailing despite dark portents, sights Moby Dick. For three long days the ship battles the white whale. Moby Dick shatters the <i>Pequod</i>'s hunting boats and then charges the ship itself, sinking it. Ahab and all the crew drown except for Ishmael, who uses the coffin built for Queequeg as a buoy. By pure luck, the still-searching <i>Rachel</i> sails by and rescues Ishmael.<br /> <span name="Characters_in_Moby-Dick" id="Characters_in_Moby-Dick"></span><br /> <b> Plot summary</b><br /> The crew-members of the <i>Pequod</i> are carefully drawn stylizations of human types and habits; critics have often described the crew as a "self-enclosed universe".<br /> <span name="Ishmael" id="Ishmael"></span><br /> <b> Characters in Moby-Dick</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Ishmael_%28Moby-Dick%29" title="Ishmael (Moby-Dick)">Ishmael (Moby-Dick)</span></i> <b> Ishmael</b><br /> The character Elijah (named for the <span href="/wiki/Prophet#Prophets_in_the_Tanakh_.28Hebrew_Bible.29" title="Prophet">Biblical prophet</span>, <span href="/wiki/Elijah" title="Elijah">Elijah</span>), on learning that Ishmael and Queequeg have signed onto Ahab's ship, asks, "Anything down there about your <span href="/wiki/Souls" title="Souls">souls</span>?" When Ishmael reacts with surprise, Elijah continues:<br /> "Oh, perhaps you hav'n't got any," he said quickly. "No matter though, I know many chaps that hav'n't got any, - good luck to 'em; and they are all the better off for it. A soul's a sort of a fifth wheel to a wagon."<span href="http://www.princeton.edu/~batke/moby/moby_019.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.princeton.edu/~batke/moby/moby_019.html" rel="nofollow">[1]</span><br /> Later in the conversation, Elijah adds:<br /> Well, well, what's signed, is signed; and what's to be, will be; and then again, perhaps it wont be, after all. Any how, it's all fixed and arranged a'ready; and some sailors or other must go with him, I suppose; as well these as any other men, God pity 'em! Morning to ye, shipmates, morning; the ineffable heavens bless ye; I'm sorry I stopped ye."<span href="http://www.princeton.edu/~batke/moby/moby_019.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.princeton.edu/~batke/moby/moby_019.html" rel="nofollow">[2]</span><br /> The vague and uncertain prophet of the text, ambivalent about religion, is replaced in both the 1956 and 1998 movie adaptations with a prescient Elijah who foretells the fate of the Pequod with confident precision. The 1956 film has Elijah waving his lame arm in pantomime foretelling Ahab's demise, and Ahab (played by Gregory Peck) moves his own arm in fulfillment of Elijah's prophecy.<span href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0049513/" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0049513/" rel="nofollow">[3]</span> In the 1998 television adaptation, Elijah warns that captain and crew shall all perish except one and that by signing on they have effectively signed away their souls; Queequeg asks Ishmael what a soul is, to which Ishmael responds by leading Queequeg to a Christian church where Father Mapple (played by Gregory Peck) preaches the story of Jonah.<span href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0120756/fullcredits#cast" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0120756/fullcredits#cast" rel="nofollow">[4]</span> (In the text, the Jonah sermon occurs before Ishmael meets Elijah, and Queequeg leaves the chapel "before the benediction some time."<span href="http://etcweb.princeton.edu/cgi-bin/mfs.batke/14/moby_010.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://etcweb.princeton.edu/cgi-bin/mfs.batke/14/moby_010.html" rel="nofollow">[5]</span>) These substitutions may reflect the changing role of <span href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</span> in American culture.<br /> <span name="Ahab" id="Ahab"></span><br /> <b> Elijah</b><br /> Ahab is the tyrannical captain of the <i>Pequod</i> who is driven by a <span href="/wiki/Monomania" title="Monomania">monomaniacal</span> desire to kill Moby Dick, the whale that maimed him on his last whaling voyage. A <span href="/wiki/Quaker" title="Quaker">Quaker</span>, he seeks revenge in direct opposition to his religion's well-known pacifism. Ahab's name comes directly from the Bible (see <span href="/wiki/Books_of_Kings" title="Books of Kings">1 Kings 18-22</span>).<br /> In Ishmael's first encounter with Ahab's name, he responds "When that wicked king was slain, the dogs, did they not lick his blood?" (<i>Moby-Dick</i>, Chapter 16).<span href="http://www.princeton.edu/~batke/moby/moby_016.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.princeton.edu/~batke/moby/moby_016.html" rel="nofollow">[6]</span><br /> Ahab ultimately dooms the crew of the <i>Pequod</i> (excepting Ishmael) to death due to his obsession with Moby Dick. During the final chase, Ahab hurls his final harpoon while yelling his now-famous revenge line:<br /> <i>From hell's heart I stab at thee</i><br /> The harpoon becomes lodged into Moby Dick's flesh and Ahab, caught in his own harpoon's rope and unable to free himself, is dragged into the cold oblivion of the sea with the injured whale, but not before the whale destroys the longboats and crew, and sinks the <i>Pequod</i>.<br /> <span name="Moby_Dick" id="Moby_Dick"></span><br /> <b> Ahab</b><br /> Moby Dick is a mottled <span href="/wiki/Sperm_whale" title="Sperm whale">sperm whale</span> with a white <span href="/wiki/Hump" title="Hump">hump</span>, of extraordinary ferocity and size, but is also possessed of ineffable strength, mystery, and power. The color white is explored in the chapter "The Whiteness of the Whale". It calls into question the meaning of the chapters on <span href="/wiki/Cetology" title="Cetology">cetology</span>. The symbolism of the whale is not clear; many things, including <span href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</span>, <span href="/wiki/Providence" title="Providence">providence</span>, <span href="/wiki/Fate" title="Fate">fate</span>, and even <span href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</span> have been suggested.<br /> Melville spelled the whale's name without a <span href="/wiki/Hyphen" title="Hyphen">hyphen</span>, but included one in the book's title, suggesting a split between the two.<br /> In popular culture, Moby Dick is often depicted as being an <span href="/wiki/Albinism" title="Albinism">albino</span> whale. For example, in the huge whale mural at the New Bedford Whaling Museum, a white sperm whale with a red eye and several harpoons (detached from their boats) stuck in its back is prominently displayed.<br /> <span name="Mates" id="Mates"></span><br /> <b> Moby Dick</b><br /> The three mates of the <i>Pequod</i> were all from <span href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</span>.<br /> <span name="Starbuck" id="Starbuck"></span><br /> <b> Mates</b><br /> Frank Starbuck, the young <span href="/wiki/First_mate" title="First mate">first mate</span> of the <i>Pequod</i>, was a thoughtful and intellectual <span href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quaker</span> from <span href="/wiki/Nantucket" title="Nantucket">Nantucket</span>.<br /> Uncommonly conscientious for a seaman, and endued with a deep natural reverence, the wild watery loneliness of his life did therefore strongly incline him to superstition; but to that sort of superstition, which in some organization seems rather to spring, somehow, from intelligence than from ignorance... [H]is far-away domestic memories of his young Cape wife and child, tend[ed] to bend him ... from the original ruggedness of his nature, and open him still further to those latent influences which, in some honest-hearted men, restrain the gush of dare-devil daring, so often evinced by others in the more perilous vicissitudes of the fishery. "I will have no man in my boat," said Starbuck, "who is not afraid of a whale." By this, he seemed to mean, not only that the most reliable and useful courage was that which arises from the fair estimation of the encountered peril, but that an utterly fearless man is a far more dangerous comrade than a coward. — <i>Moby-Dick</i>, Ch. 26<br /> Starbuck was alone among the crew in objecting to Ahab's quest, declaring it <span href="/wiki/Insanity" title="Insanity">madness</span> to want <span href="/wiki/Revenge" title="Revenge">revenge</span> on an animal, which lacks <span href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</span>. Starbuck advocates continuing the more mundane pursuit of whales for their oil. But he lacked the support of the crew in his opposition to Ahab, and was unable to persuade them to turn back. Despite his misgivings, he felt himself bound by his obligations to obey the captain.<br /> Starbuck was an important <span href="/wiki/Quaker" title="Quaker">Quaker</span> family name on <span href="/wiki/Nantucket_Island" title="Nantucket Island">Nantucket Island</span>, and there were several actual whalers of this period named "Starbuck," as evidenced by the name of <span href="/wiki/Starbuck_Island" title="Starbuck Island">Starbuck Island</span> in the southern Pacific whaling grounds.<br /> <span name="Stubb" id="Stubb"></span><br /> <b> Starbuck</b><br /> Stubb was the second mate of the <i>Pequod</i>, was from <span href="/wiki/Cape_Cod" title="Cape Cod">Cape Cod</span>, and always seemed to have a pipe in his mouth and a smile on his face. "Good-humored, easy, and careless, he presided over his whaleboat as if the most deadly encounter were but a dinner, and his crew all invited guests." (<i>Moby-Dick</i>, Ch. 27)<br /> <span name="Flask" id="Flask"></span><br /> <b> Stubb</b><br /> Flask was the third mate of the <i>Pequod</i>. He was from <span href="/wiki/Martha%27s_Vineyard" title="Martha's Vineyard">Martha's Vineyard</span>.<br /> A short, stout, ruddy young fellow, very pugnacious concerning whales, who somehow seemed to think that the great Leviathans had personally and hereditarily affronted him; and therefore it was a sort of point of honor with him, to destroy them whenever encountered. — <i>Moby-Dick</i>, Ch. 27<br /> <span name="Harpooners" id="Harpooners"></span><br /> <b> Flask</b><br /> The harpooneers of the <i>Pequod</i> were all non-<span href="/wiki/Christian" title="Christian">Christians</span> from varying parts of the world. Each served on a ship officer's boat.<br /> <span name="Queequeg" id="Queequeg"></span><br /> <b> Harpooners</b><br /> <span href="/wiki/Queequeg" title="Queequeg">Queequeg</span> hailed from a fictional island in the South Seas inhabited by a <span href="/wiki/Cannibal" title="Cannibal">cannibal</span> tribe, and was the son of the chief of his tribe. Since leaving the island, he had become extremely skilled with the <span href="/wiki/Harpoon" title="Harpoon">harpoon</span>. He befriended Ishmael very early in the novel, when they met in <span href="/wiki/New_Bedford%2C_Massachusetts" title="New Bedford, Massachusetts">New Bedford</span>, <span href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</span> before leaving for <span href="/wiki/Nantucket" title="Nantucket">Nantucket</span>. He is described as existing in a state between civilized and savage; for example, Ishmael recounts with amusement how Queequeg feels it necessary to hide himself (under the bed!) when pulling on his boots, noting that if he were a savage he wouldn't consider any such modesty necessary, but if he were completely civilized he would realize there was no need to be modest when pulling on his boots.<br /> Queequeg was the harpooneer on Starbuck's boat, where Ishmael was also an oarsman.<br /> <span name="Tashtego" id="Tashtego"></span><br /> <img src="http://www.hurricanehimes.com/graphics/edge1.jpg" alt="Victoria Rebels" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Queequeg</b><br /> Tashtego was described as a <span href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Native American</span> harpooner. The personification of the hunter, he turned from hunting land animals to hunting whales. Tashtego was the harpooner on Stubb's boat.<br /> Next was Tashtego, an unmixed Indian from Gay Head, the most westerly promontory of Martha's Vineyard, where there still exists the last remnant of a village of red men, which has long supplied the neighboring island of Nantucket with many of her most daring harpooneers. In the fishery, they usually go by the generic name of Gay-Headers. — <i>Moby-Dick</i>, Ch.27<br /> <span name="Daggoo" id="Daggoo"></span><br /> <b> Tashtego</b><br /> Daggoo was a gigantic <span href="/wiki/African" title="African">African</span> harpooner with a noble bearing and grace. He was the harpooneer on Flask's boat.<br /> <span name="Fedallah" id="Fedallah"></span><br /> <b> Daggoo</b><br /> Fedallah was the harpooner on Ahab's boat. He was of <span href="/wiki/India" title="India">Indian</span> <span href="/wiki/Zoroastrian" title="Zoroastrian">Zoroastrian</span> ("<span href="/wiki/Parsi" title="Parsi">Parsi</span>") descent. Due to descriptions of him having lived in <span href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</span>, he might have been among the great wave of <span href="/wiki/Parsi" title="Parsi">Parsi</span> traders that made their way to <span href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</span> and the <span href="/wiki/Far_East" title="Far East">Far East</span> during the mid-19th century. At the time when the <i>Pequod</i> sets sail, Fedallah was hidden on board, and he emerged with Ahab's boat's crew later on, to the surprise of the crew. Fedallah was referred to in the text as Ahab's "Dark Shadow." Ishmael called him a "fire worshipper" and the crew speculated that he was a <span href="/wiki/Devil" title="Devil">devil</span> in man's disguise. He is the source of a variety of prophecies regarding Ahab and his hunt for Moby Dick.<br /> [T]all and swart, with one white tooth evilly protruding from its steel-like lips. A rumpled Chinese jacket of black cotton funereally invested him, with wide black trowsers of the same dark stuff. But strangely crowning this ebonness was a glistening white plaited turban, the living hair braided and coiled round and round upon his head. — <i>Moby-Dick</i>, Ch.48<br /> <span name="Other_notable_characters" id="Other_notable_characters"></span><br /> <b> Fedallah</b><br /> <b>Pip</b> (nicknamed "Pippin," but "Pip" for short) was an <span href="/wiki/African-American" title="African-American">African-American</span> ("negro") boy from <span href="/wiki/Tolland_County" title="Tolland County">Tolland County</span>, <span href="/wiki/Connecticut" title="Connecticut">Connecticut</span> who was "the most insignificant of the Pequod's crew". Because he was physically slight, he is made a ship-keeper, (a sailor who stays in the <i>Pequod</i> while its hunting boats go out). Ishmael contrasts him with the "dull and torpid in his intellects" — and paler and much older — cook Dough-Boy, describing Pip as "over tender-hearted" but "at bottom very bright, with that pleasant, genial, jolly brightness peculiar to his tribe". Ishmael goes so far as so chastise the reader: "Nor smile so, while I write that this little black was brilliant, for even blackness has its brilliancy; behold yon lustrous ebony, panelled in king's cabinets."<br /> The <b>Cook</b> (Dough-Boy), <b>Blacksmith</b> and <b>Carpenter</b> of the ship are each highlighted in at least one chapter near the end of the book. Dough-Boy, a very old African-American with bad knees, is presented in the chapter "Stubb Kills a Whale" at some length in a <span href="/wiki/Dialogue" title="Dialogue">dialogue</span> where Stubb takes him to task over how to prepare a variety of dishes from the whale's carcass.<br /> <b>The crew as a whole</b> was exceedingly international, having a makeup of both the <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</span>' and the world's population. Chapter 40, "Midnight, Forecastle," highlights, in its stage-play manner (in <span href="/wiki/Shakespeare" title="Shakespeare">Shakespearean</span> style), the striking variety in the sailors' origins. A partial list of the speakers includes sailors from <span href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</span>, <span href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</span>, <span href="/wiki/Holland" title="Holland">Holland</span>, the <span href="/wiki/Azores" title="Azores">Azores</span>, <span href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</span> and <span href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</span> (<span href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</span>), <span href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</span>, <span href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</span>, <span href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</span>, <span href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</span>, <span href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</span>, <span href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</span>, and <span href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</span>. Considering that this variety is in only one part of the ship (the <span href="/wiki/Forecastle" title="Forecastle">forecastle</span>) there could be many other nationalities are on board. Melville gives an overall impression of the crew as being a <span href="/wiki/Melting_pot" title="Melting pot">melting pot</span> of every conceivable <span href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">ethnicity</span>.<br /> <span name="Critical_reception" id="Critical_reception"></span><br /> <b> Other notable characters</b><br /> <span name="Melville.27s_expectations" id="Melville.27s_expectations"></span><br /> <b> Critical reception</b><br /> In a letter to Nathaniel Hawthorne written within days of <i>Moby-Dick's</i> American publication, Melville made a number of revealing comments:<br /> .. for not one man in five cycles, who is wise, will expect appreciative recognition from his fellows, or any one of them. Appreciation! Recognition! Is <span href="/wiki/Jove" title="Jove">Jove</span> appreciated? Why, ever since Adam, who has got to the meaning of his great allegory—the world? Then we pigmies must be content to have our paper allegories but ill comprehended. I say your appreciation is my glorious gratuity.<br /> <span name="Contemporary" id="Contemporary"></span><br /> <img src="http://i141.photobucket.com/albums/r63/justincgallo/2008%2520Season/Moby%2520Dick%2520Reheased/mobydick2.jpg" alt="Moby-Dick" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Melville's expectations</b><br /> <i>Moby-Dick</i> received decidedly mixed reviews from critics at the time it was published. Since the book first appeared in England, the American literary establishment took note of what the English critics said, especially when these critics were attached to the more prestigious journals. Although many critics praised it for its unique style, interesting characters and poetic language <span href="http://www.melville.org/hmmoby.htm#Contemporary" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.melville.org/hmmoby.htm#Contemporary" rel="nofollow">[7]</span>, others agreed with a critic for the highly regarded <i>London Athenaeum</i>, who described it as<br /> "[A]n ill-compounded mixture of romance and matter-of-fact. The idea of a connected and collected story has obviously visited and abandoned its writer again and again in the course of composition. The style of his tale is in places disfigured by mad (rather than bad) English; and its catastrophe is hastily, weakly, and obscurely managed".<span href="http://www.melville.org/hmmoby.htm#Contemporary" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.melville.org/hmmoby.htm#Contemporary" rel="nofollow">[8]</span><br /> The problem was that Peter Bentley botched the English edition, most significantly in leaving out the epilogue. For this reason, many of the critics faulted the book on what little they could grasp of it, namely its purely formal grounds: after all, how could the tale have been told if no one survived to tell it? Thus the generally bad reviews from across the ocean made American readers skittish about picking up the tome.<br /> Still, a handful of American critics saw much more in it than most of their U.S. and English colleagues. Perhaps the most perceptive review came from the pen of Evert Duyckinck, who was the friend of Melville who introduced him to Hawthorne.<br /> <span name="Underground" id="Underground"></span><br /> <b> Contemporary</b><br /> Within a year after Melville's death, <i>Moby-Dick</i>, along with <i>Typee</i>, <i><span href="/wiki/Omoo" title="Omoo">Omoo</span></i>, and <i><span href="/wiki/Mardi" title="Mardi">Mardi</span></i>, was reprinted by <span href="/wiki/Harper_and_Row" title="Harper and Row">Harper & Brothers</span>, giving it a chance to be rediscovered. However, only New York's literary underground seemed to take much interest, just enough to keep Melville's name circulating for the next 25 years in the capital of American publishing. During this time, a few critics were willing to devote time, space, and a modicum of praise to Melville and his works, or at least those that could still be fairly easily obtained or remembered. Other works, especially the poetry, went largely forgotten.<span href="http://www.bartleby.com/187/5.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.bartleby.com/187/5.html" rel="nofollow">[9]</span><br /> Then came <span href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</span> and its consequences, particularly the shaking or destruction of faith in so many aspects of Western civilization, all of which caused people concerned with culture and its potential redemptive value to experiment with new aesthetic techniques. The stage was set for Melville to find his place.<br /> <span name="The_Melville_Revival" id="The_Melville_Revival"></span><br /> <b> Underground</b><br /> With the burgeoning of Modernist aesthetics (see <span href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</span> and <span href="/wiki/American_modernism" title="American modernism">American modernism</span>) and the war that tore everything apart still so fresh in memory, <i>Moby-Dick</i> began to seem increasingly relevant. Not only did many of Melville's techniques echo those of Modernism: kaleidoscopic, hybrid in genre and tone, monumentally ambitious in trying to unite so many disparate elements and loose ends. His new readers also found in him an almost too-profound exploration of violence, hunger for power, <span href="/wiki/Quixotism" title="Quixotism">quixotic</span> goals, and reckless disregard for the fate of one's fellows. Although many critics of this time still considered <i>Moby-Dick</i> extremely difficult to come to grips with, they largely saw this lack of easy understanding as an asset rather than a liability.<br /> In the 1920s, British literary critics began to take notice. In his idiosyncratic but landmark <i><span href="/wiki/Studies_in_Classic_American_Literature" title="Studies in Classic American Literature">Studies in Classic American Literature</span></i>, novelist, poet, and short story writer <span href="/wiki/D._H._Lawrence" title="D. H. Lawrence">D. H. Lawrence</span> directed Americans' attention to the great originality and value of many American authors, among them Melville. Perhaps most surprising is that Lawrence saw <i>Moby-Dick</i> as a work of the first order despite his using the original English edition. <span href="http://www.bartleby.com/187/5.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.bartleby.com/187/5.html" rel="nofollow">[10]</span><br /> In his 1921 study, <i>The American Novel</i>, <span href="/wiki/Carl_Van_Doren" title="Carl Van Doren">Carl Van Doren</span> returns to Melville with much more depth. Here he calls <i>Moby-Dick</i> a pinnacle of American Romanticism.<span href="http://www.bartleby.com/187/5.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.bartleby.com/187/5.html" rel="nofollow">[11]</span><br /> <span name="Post-Revival" id="Post-Revival"></span><br /> <b> The Melville Revival</b><br /> The next great wave of <i>Moby-Dick</i> appraisal came with the publication of <span href="/wiki/F._O._Matthiessen" title="F. O. Matthiessen">F. O. Matthiessen</span>'s <i><span href="/wiki/American_Renaissance_%28literature%29" title="American Renaissance (literature)">American Renaissance: Art and Expression in the Age of Emerson and Whitman</span></i>.<br /> <span name="Current" id="Current"></span><br /> <b> Post-Revival</b><br /> Now, Moby Dick is seen as a great American classic and is looked upon as a high point in literature. It is studied in most schools in the United States along side <i>War and Peace</i>, <i>The Scarlet Letter</i>, and other great classics.<br /> <span name="Selected_Adaptations" id="Selected_Adaptations"></span><br /> <b> Current</b><br /> <i>For a selected listing of adaptations and cultural references, see:</i><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Moby-Dick_in_popular_culture" title="Moby-Dick in popular culture">Moby-Dick in popular culture</span></i> <b> Selected Adaptations</b><br /> <span name="Popular_Culture" id="Popular_Culture"></span><br /> A <span href="/wiki/1926_in_film" title="1926 in film">1926</span> <span href="/wiki/Silent_movie" title="Silent movie">silent movie</span>, <i><span href="/wiki/The_Sea_Beast" title="The Sea Beast">The Sea Beast</span></i>, starring <span href="/wiki/John_Barrymore" title="John Barrymore">John Barrymore</span> as a heroic Ahab with a fiancée and an evil brother, loosely based on the novel (<span href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0017354/" class="external text" title="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0017354/" rel="nofollow">IMDb link</span>). Remade as <i><span href="/w/index.php?title=Moby_Dick_%281930_film%29&action=edit" class="new" title="Moby Dick (1930 film)">Moby Dick</span></i> in <span href="/wiki/1930_in_film" title="1930 in film">1930</span> (<span href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0021149/" class="external text" title="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0021149/" rel="nofollow">IMDb link</span>), a version in which Ahab kills the whale and returns home to the woman he loves (played by <span href="/wiki/Joan_Bennett" title="Joan Bennett">Joan Bennett</span>).<br /> A <span href="/wiki/1956_in_film" title="1956 in film">1956</span> <span href="/wiki/Film" title="Film">film</span> directed by <span href="/wiki/John_Huston" title="John Huston">John Huston</span> and starring <span href="/wiki/Gregory_Peck" title="Gregory Peck">Gregory Peck</span> as Captain Ahab, <span href="/wiki/Richard_Basehart" title="Richard Basehart">Richard Basehart</span> as Ishmael, <span href="/wiki/Leo_Genn" title="Leo Genn">Leo Genn</span> as Starbuck, and, in a one-scene cameo, <span href="/wiki/Orson_Welles" title="Orson Welles">Orson Welles</span> as Father Mapple, with screenplay by <span href="/wiki/Ray_Bradbury" title="Ray Bradbury">Ray Bradbury</span> (see <i><span href="/wiki/Moby_Dick_%281956_film%29" title="Moby Dick (1956 film)">Moby Dick</span></i>)<br /> <i><span href="/w/index.php?title=Moby_Dick_%281978_film%29&action=edit" class="new" title="Moby Dick (1978 film)">Moby Dick</span></i>, a one-man show featuring <span href="/wiki/Jack_Aranson" title="Jack Aranson">Jack Aranson</span> playing four roles: Ahab, Ishmael, Starbuck, and Father Mapple, was filmed in 1978 and released in November 2005 on DVD. The director was <span href="/wiki/Paul_Stanley_%28director%29" title="Paul Stanley (director)">Paul Stanley</span> (<span href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0452823/combined" class="external text" title="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0452823/combined" rel="nofollow">IMDb link</span>).<br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Moby_Dick_%28TV_movie%29&action=edit" class="new" title="Moby Dick (TV movie)"><i>Moby Dick</i></span>, a 1998 television movie starring <span href="/wiki/Patrick_Stewart" title="Patrick Stewart">Patrick Stewart</span> as Ahab, <span href="/wiki/Gregory_Peck" title="Gregory Peck">Gregory Peck</span> as Father Mapple (a <span href="/wiki/Golden_Globe" title="Golden Globe">Golden Globe</span>-winning performance) and <span href="/wiki/Henry_Thomas" title="Henry Thomas">Henry Thomas</span> as Ishmael {<span href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0120756/" class="external text" title="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0120756/" rel="nofollow">IMDb link</span>) <b> Notes</b><br /> <span name="Editions" id="Editions"></span><br /> Hershel Parker and Harrison Hayford, ed. (2002). <i>Moby Dick / Herman Melville</i>. Norton Critical Edition. <span href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0393972836" class="internal">ISBN 0-393-97283-6</span> gigihong07http://www.blogger.com/profile/11750522770505075201noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4326489336682246022.post-79768314821902019192008-04-15T08:36:00.001-07:002008-04-15T08:36:34.738-07:00 <b></b><br /> The <b>University of Chicago Press</b> is the largest <span href="/wiki/University_press" title="University press">university press</span> in the U.S. It is operated by the <span href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</span> and publishes a wide variety of academic titles, including <i><span href="/wiki/The_Chicago_Manual_of_Style" title="The Chicago Manual of Style">The Chicago Manual of Style</span></i>, dozens of academic journals including <i><span href="/wiki/Critical_Inquiry" title="Critical Inquiry">Critical Inquiry</span>,</i> and a wide array of texts covering academic fields as diverse as <span href="/wiki/Life_Sciences" title="Life Sciences">Life Sciences</span>, <span href="/wiki/Literary_Criticism" title="Literary Criticism">Literary Criticism</span>, <span href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</span>, <span href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</span>, <span href="/wiki/Political_Science" title="Political Science">Political Science</span>, and <span href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</span>.<br /> One of its quasi-independent projects is the <span href="/wiki/BiblioVault" title="BiblioVault">BiblioVault</span>, a digital repository for scholarly books.<br /> The press building is located just south of the <span href="/wiki/Midway_Plaisance" title="Midway Plaisance">Midway Plaisance</span> on the UC campus, near an enormous statue of <span href="/wiki/Saint_Wenceslaus" title="Saint Wenceslaus">Saint Wenceslaus</span> on horseback, sculpted by <span href="/wiki/Albin_Polasek" title="Albin Polasek">Albin Polasek</span> (1879-1965) and dedicated as a memorial to <span href="/wiki/Thomas_Masaryk" title="Thomas Masaryk">Thomas Masaryk</span> (1850-1937), the first president of Czechoslovakia.<br /> <span name="History" id="History"></span><br /> <img src="http://www.firstworldwar.com/battles/graphics/artoischurch.jpg" alt="Second Battle of Artois" align="left" style="padding:10px" /> <b> History</b><br /> Garrett P. Kiely will became the fifteenth director of the University of Chicago Press on September 1, 2007. He will head one of academic publishing's largest operations employing 300 people across its three divisions of books, journals, and distribution and publishing approximately 180 new books and 70 paperback reprints a year. The University of Chicago Press currently maintains three operating divisions-Books, Journals, and Distribution Services.<br /> <span name="Books_Division" id="Books_Division"></span><br /> <b> Books Division</b><br /> The <span href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Journals" title="University of Chicago Journals">University of Chicago Journals</span> division publishes forty-three journals and five annuals in a wide range of academic disciplines, including the social sciences, the humanities, education, the biological and medical sciences, and the physical sciences. The <span href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Sociology" title="American Journal of Sociology">American Journal of Sociology</span>, founded in 1895, is the oldest academic journal devoted to sociology, while <i>History of Religions</i> was the first academic journal devoted exclusively to comparative religious history. The Journals Division launched electronic publishing efforts in 1995 and by 2004 all the journals published by the University of Chicago Press became available online.<br /> <span name="Chicago_Distribution_Services" id="Chicago_Distribution_Services"></span><br /> <img src="http://shop.book.uci.edu/webitemimages/446/W60002.jpg" alt="University of Chicago Press" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Chicago Distribution Services</b><br /> <span name="External_links" id="External_links"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Category:University_of_Chicago_journals" title="Category:University of Chicago journals">Category:University of Chicago journals</span> gigihong07http://www.blogger.com/profile/11750522770505075201noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4326489336682246022.post-66018975792801006912008-04-14T10:36:00.001-07:002008-04-14T10:36:07.355-07:00 <b></b><br /> This is a <b>list of <span href="/wiki/Communes_of_France" title="Communes of France">communes</span> in <span href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</span></b> with a population over 20,000 at the <span href="/wiki/INSEE" title="INSEE">March 8, 1999 census</span>. All figures reflect <span href="/wiki/INSEE" title="INSEE">INSEE</span>'s <i>sans doubles comptes</i> counting method.<br /> There have been a couple of major changes since the 1999 census, however:<br /> The commune of <span href="/wiki/Cherbourg-Octeville" title="Cherbourg-Octeville">Cherbourg-Octeville</span>[¹] (ranked 150 here) is the result of a merger of Cherbourg and Octeville on February 28, 2000. Their 1999 census populations have been combined here.<br /> The commune of <span href="/wiki/Lille" title="Lille">Lille</span>[²] (ranked 10 here) absorbed the commune of <span href="/wiki/Lomme" title="Lomme">Lomme</span> on February 27, 2000. Their 1999 census populations have been combined here.<br /> The commune of <span href="/wiki/Saint_Martin_%28France%29" title="Saint Martin (France)">Saint-Martin</span>[³] (ranked 257 here), as of February 22, 2007, is no longer a part of <span href="/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</span>, but is included here because of its former status at the time of the 1999 census.<br /> For details on this topic, see <span href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_France" title="Administrative divisions of France">Administrative divisions of France</span>. For <span href="/wiki/French_overseas_territories" title="French overseas territories">DOMs-TOMs</span>, see the lists for <span href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_French_Guiana" title="List of cities in French Guiana">French Guiana</span>, <span href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_French_Polynesia" title="List of cities in French Polynesia">French Polynesia</span>, <span href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cities_in_Guadeloupe&action=edit" class="new" title="List of cities in Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</span>, <span href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Mayotte" title="List of cities in Mayotte">Mayotte</span> and <span href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_R%C3%A9union" title="List of cities in Réunion">Réunion</span>.<br /> <img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Satellite_image_of_France_in_August_2002.jpg/250px-Satellite_image_of_France_in_August_2002.jpg" alt="List of cities in France over 20,000 population (1999 census)" align="right" style="padding:10px" /><img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Location_France_EU_Europe.png/250px-Location_France_EU_Europe.png" alt="List of cities in France over 20,000 population (1999 census)" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <span name="See_also" id="See_also"></span><br /> <b> See also</b><br /> <span name="External_link" id="External_link"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/List_of_towns" title="List of towns">List of towns</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/List_of_cities" title="List of cities">List of cities</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Lists_of_communes_of_France" title="Lists of communes of France">Lists of communes of France</span> gigihong07http://www.blogger.com/profile/11750522770505075201noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4326489336682246022.post-30746141927746088922008-04-13T09:19:00.001-07:002008-04-13T09:19:52.292-07:00 <b></b><br /> <img src="http://www.appliedlanguage.com/flags_of_the_world/medium_flag_of_afghanistan.gif" alt="Flag of Afghanistan" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> The <b><span href="/wiki/Flag" title="Flag">Flag</span> of <span href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</span></b> was adopted by the transitional government of Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan in <span href="/wiki/2002" title="2002">2002</span>–<span href="/wiki/2004" title="2004">2004</span>. This flag is similar to the one flown in Afghanistan during the <span href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">monarchy</span> between <span href="/wiki/1930" title="1930">1930</span> and <span href="/wiki/1973" title="1973">1973</span>. The difference is the addition of the <i><span href="/wiki/Shahadah" title="Shahadah">shahadah</span></i> at the top of the <span href="/wiki/Coat-of-arms" title="Coat-of-arms">coat-of-arms</span> (seen in gold/yellow) in the center. The new flag was adopted <span href="/wiki/January_4" title="January 4">January 4</span>, <span href="/wiki/2004" title="2004">2004</span>.<br /> This flag consists of three stripes of the colors black, red, and green. This has been present on most flags of Afghanistan in the last twenty years. The center emblem is the classical <span href="/wiki/Emblem_of_Afghanistan" title="Emblem of Afghanistan">emblem of Afghanistan</span> with a <span href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">mosque</span> with its <span href="/wiki/Mihrab" title="Mihrab">mihrab</span> facing <span href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</span>.<br /> The pre-<span href="/wiki/Taliban" title="Taliban">Taliban</span>-era and <span href="/wiki/Afghan_Northern_Alliance" title="Afghan Northern Alliance">Afghan Northern Alliance</span> flag featured the same emblem, but with green, white and black horizontal stripes instead.<br /> Afghanistan has had more national flags in history than any other country in the world.<br /> <span name="Historical_flags" id="Historical_flags"></span><br /> <b> See also</b><br /> <span name="External_link" id="External_link"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Emblem_of_Afghanistan" title="Emblem of Afghanistan">Emblem of Afghanistan</span> gigihong07http://www.blogger.com/profile/11750522770505075201noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4326489336682246022.post-27723900842595643432008-04-12T08:03:00.001-07:002008-04-12T08:03:47.915-07:00 <b> Language design</b><br /> True to the <span href="/wiki/Glue_language" title="Glue language">glue language</span> roots of Perl, PDL borrows from several different modules for graphics and plotting support. <span href="/w/index.php?title=NetPBM&action=edit" class="new" title="NetPBM">NetPBM</span> provides image file I/O (though FITS is supported natively). <span href="/w/index.php?title=PLPlot&action=edit" class="new" title="PLPlot">PLPlot</span>, <span href="/wiki/PGPLOT" title="PGPLOT">PGPLOT</span>, and <span href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">Karma</span> modules are all supported for 2-D graphics and plotting applications, and an interface to <span href="/wiki/GL" title="GL">GL</span> is available for 3-D plotting and rendering.<br /> <span name="I.2FO" id="I.2FO"></span><br /> <img src="http://pixhost.eu/avaxhome/avaxhome/2007-12-01/51VSvl2oJiL._SS500_.jpg" alt="Perl Data Language" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Graphics</b><br /> PDL provides facilities to read and write many open data formats, including <span href="/wiki/JPEG" title="JPEG">JPEG</span>, <span href="/wiki/PNG" title="PNG">PNG</span>, <span href="/wiki/GIF" title="GIF">GIF</span>, <span href="/wiki/Portable_pixmap" title="Portable pixmap">PPM</span>, <span href="/wiki/MPEG" title="MPEG">MPEG</span>, <span href="/wiki/FITS" title="FITS">FITS</span>, <span href="/wiki/NetCDF" title="NetCDF">NetCDF</span>, <span href="/wiki/GRIB" title="GRIB">GRIB</span>, raw binary files, and delimited ASCII tables. Because of legal threats from <span href="/wiki/Kodak" title="Kodak">Kodak</span>, the owners of <span href="/wiki/IDL_programming_language" title="IDL programming language">IDL</span>, PDL cannot read or write IDL data files.<br /> <span name="perldl" id="perldl"></span><br /> <b> perldl</b><br /> The core of PDL is written in <span href="/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29" title="C (programming language)">C</span>. Most of the functionality is written in <b>PP</b>, a PDL-specific metalanguage that handles the vectorization of simple C snippets and interfaces them with the perl host language via Perl's <span href="/wiki/XS_%28Perl%29" title="XS (Perl)">XS</span> compiler. Some modules are written in <span href="/wiki/FORTRAN" title="FORTRAN">FORTRAN</span>, with a C/PP interface layer. Many of the supplied functions are written in PDL itself. PP is available to the user to write C-language extensions to PDL.<br /> The PDL API uses the basic Perl 5 object-oriented functionality: PDL defines a new type of perl scalar object (<span href="/wiki/Eponym" title="Eponym">eponymously</span> called a "PDL") that acts as a Perl scalar, but that contains a conventional <span href="/wiki/Data_type" title="Data type">typed</span> <span href="/wiki/Array" title="Array">array</span> of numeric or character values. All of the standard Perl operators are overloaded so that they can be used on PDL objects transparently, and PDLs can be mixed-and-matched with normal Perl scalars. Several hundred object methods for operating on PDLs are supplied by the core modules.<br /> <span name="External_links" id="External_links"></span><br /> gigihong07http://www.blogger.com/profile/11750522770505075201noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4326489336682246022.post-74200839486317973622008-04-11T09:33:00.001-07:002008-04-11T09:33:16.641-07:00 <b></b><br /> This is a <b>gallery of <span href="/wiki/Flag_terminology" title="Flag terminology">bordered</span> <span href="/wiki/Flag" title="Flag">flags</span></b>.<br /> <img src="http://www.molon.de/galleries/Germany/Bavaria/Berchtesgaden/thumbs/02%2520Pedestrian%2520area%2520with%2520restaurant%2520and%2520white%2520and%2520blue%2520flags_thumb.jpg" alt="Gallery of bordered flags" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <img src="http://content.answers.com/main/content/wp/en-commons/thumb/b/be/250px-Flag_of_Guam.svg.png" alt="Gallery of bordered flags" align="left" style="padding:10px" /> <span href="/wiki/Flag_of_West_Virginia" title="Flag of West Virginia">Flag of West Virginia</span><br /> <span name="See_also" id="See_also"></span><br /> gigihong07http://www.blogger.com/profile/11750522770505075201noreply@blogger.com13tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4326489336682246022.post-61904978067590673732008-04-10T10:18:00.001-07:002008-04-10T10:18:42.645-07:00 <b></b><br /> <b>Erastus Otis Haven</b> (<span href="/wiki/November_1" title="November 1">1 November</span> <span href="/wiki/1820" title="1820">1820</span> – <span href="/wiki/August_2" title="August 2">2 August</span> <span href="/wiki/1881" title="1881">1881</span>) was an <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">American</span> <span href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">bishop</span> of the <span href="/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church" title="Methodist Episcopal Church">Methodist Episcopal Church</span>, elected in 1880.<br /> <span name="Biography" id="Biography"></span><br /> <img src="http://www.historypreserved.com/images/Cornella/Erastus_young_man_small.gif" alt="Erastus Haven" align="center" style="padding:10px" /><img src="http://static.flickr.com/36/96415131_dca7adbeea_m.jpg" alt="Erastus Haven" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Biography</b><br /> <span name="References" id="References"></span><br /> <i>American Progress</i><br /> <b>The Young Man Advised,</b> New York, 1855. (made up of discourses delivered in the chapel of the University of Michigan)<br /> <b>Pillars of Truth,</b> 1866. (a work on the evidences of Christianity)<br /> a Treatise: <b>Rhetoric.</b><br /> <b>Autobiography of Erastus O. Haven, D.D., LL.D.</b>, 1883. gigihong07http://www.blogger.com/profile/11750522770505075201noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4326489336682246022.post-41229105343021491632008-04-09T10:18:00.001-07:002008-04-09T10:18:52.420-07:00 <b> Characteristics</b><br /> Red-billed Quelea live and breed in huge flocks, mostly in <span href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">steppe</span> and <span href="/wiki/Savanna" title="Savanna">savanna</span> regions, but not avoiding human settlements. While foraging for food they may fly large distances each day without tiring. Their life expectancy is two to three years.<br /> <span name="Reproduction" id="Reproduction"></span><br /> <img src="http://web.uct.ac.za/depts/stats/adu/safring/results/0805a.jpg" alt="Red-billed Quelea" align="left" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Habits</b><br /> The breeding season begins with the seasonal rains, which come at different times in different parts of their range - starting at the north-western edge around the beginning of <span href="/wiki/November" title="November">November</span>. The breeding males first weave half-complete ovoid <span href="/wiki/Nest" title="Nest">nests</span> from <span href="/wiki/Grass" title="Grass">grass</span> and <span href="/wiki/Straw" title="Straw">straw</span>. After the female has examined the construction and the mating has occurred, both partners complete the weaving of the nest. The female lays two to four light blue <span href="/wiki/Egg_%28biology%29" title="Egg (biology)">eggs</span>, and incubates them for twelve days. After the chicks hatch, they are nourished for some days with <span href="/wiki/Caterpillar" title="Caterpillar">caterpillars</span> and <span href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</span>-rich <span href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</span>. After this time parents change to mainly feeding <span href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">seeds</span>. The young birds fledge and become independent enough to leave their parents after approximately two weeks in the nest. They are sexually mature after just one year, but many females die before this time, leaving many males without a partner.<br /> <span name="Food" id="Food"></span><br /> <img src="http://web.uct.ac.za/depts/stats/adu/safring/results/0805b.jpg" alt="Red-billed Quelea" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Food</b><br /> The distribution area of the Red-billed Quelea covers most of sub-Saharan Africa, excluding the <span href="/wiki/Rain_forest" title="Rain forest">rain forest</span> areas and parts of <span href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</span>. They are regarded as pests by farmers because of their greed, and often compared with <span href="/wiki/Locust" title="Locust">locusts</span>, which fall upon grain and <span href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</span> fields. Since they have hardly any natural enemies, their population is enormous, some 1.5 billion individuals. Even extreme control measures such as <span href="/wiki/Dynamite" title="Dynamite">dynamiting</span> the nest colonies and use of <span href="/wiki/Organophosphate" title="Organophosphate">organophosphate</span> poisons have not significantly reduced their numbers.<br /> <span name="References" id="References"></span><br /> gigihong07http://www.blogger.com/profile/11750522770505075201noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4326489336682246022.post-87801509795088671362008-04-08T08:20:00.001-07:002008-04-08T08:20:28.396-07:00<img src="http://www.sky-chaser.com/image/flying/flynf3.jpg" alt="Horseshoe Falls (Canada)" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b></b><br /> <i>For the Horseshoe Falls in Wales, United Kingdom, see,</i><br /> The <b>Horseshoe Falls</b>, also known as the <b>Canadian Falls</b>, is a <span href="/wiki/Waterfall" title="Waterfall">waterfall</span> on the <span href="/wiki/Niagara_River" title="Niagara River">Niagara River</span>, located entirely on the <span href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canadian</span> side of the border with the <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</span>. It is located between Terrapin Point on <span href="/wiki/Goat_Island_%28New_York%29" title="Goat Island (New York)">Goat Island</span> in <span href="/wiki/New_York_State" title="New York State">New York State</span>, and Table Rock House in <span href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</span>.<br /> The name is derived from its curving, horseshoe-shaped crest that is 671 meters (2,200 ft) in width. At the center of the Horseshoe Falls the water is about 3 meters (10 ft) deep. It passes over the crest at a speed of about 32 km/h (20 mph). The falls is 53 meters (173 ft) high, has an average crest elevation of 152 meters (500 ft) and faces northwards. The depth of the river at the base of the falls is actually higher than the falls itself, estimated at 56 metres (184 ft).<br /> The Horseshoe Falls is considered to be the most impressive of the three falls that make up <span href="/wiki/Niagara_Falls" title="Niagara Falls">Niagara Falls</span>. Approximately 90% of the water of the <span href="/wiki/Niagara_River" title="Niagara River">Niagara River</span> flows over Horseshoe Falls, while the other 10% flows over the <span href="/wiki/American_Falls" title="American Falls">American Falls</span>.<br /> The falls continually produces a large amount of mist, which renders viewing them difficult. The amount of natural mist has been reduced since the early <span href="/wiki/20th_century" title="20th century">20th century</span> by the diversion of most of the water from the Niagara River for <span href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">hydroelectricity</span>, but then increased in the last 5 years due to new high-rises being built on the Canadian side of the border causing redirection of airflow. It is observable at a direct angle from the Canadian side, and at a steep angle on the U.S. side on Goat Island. The <i><span href="/wiki/Maid_of_the_Mist" title="Maid of the Mist">Maid of the Mist</span></i> boat offers tours which approach the base of the falls.<br /> The <span href="/wiki/Niagara_Scow" title="Niagara Scow">Niagara Scow</span> has rested approximately 700 metres from the edge of the falls since it was caught against a <span href="/wiki/Shoal" title="Shoal">rock shoal</span> in 1918, and a plaque today informs tourists of the history of the small shipwreck that has sat perched just above the falls for nearly a century without being dislodged.<br /> gigihong07http://www.blogger.com/profile/11750522770505075201noreply@blogger.com0